
Copyright)} . 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT; 



POCKET EDITION OF 



Locomotive Engineering 



A NEW COMPLETE SERIES OF QUESTIONS 
AND ANSWERS TREATING ON THE 

First, Second and Third Years' Progressive Examination Questions; Air Brake 
and Mechanical, Locomotive Construction and Mechanical Appliances. 

INCLUDING 

Definition and Theory of Combustion, Firing Methods, Air Pumps and Air 

Brake Equipments, Valves and Valve Gears, Their 

Construction, Operation and Defects. 



Slide and Piston Valves, Walschaert, Baker Pilliod and Young Valve Gears, 
Breakdowns, Defects and Hot Bearings. 



In Detail, Common to all Types and Classes of Locomotives and the Proper 
Method of Treatment. 



Written Expressly for the 

LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER AND FIREMAN 

By 

IRA W. FISHER AND JOHN J. WILLIAMS 

Chicago, Illinois 






V 



Copyright by 

FISHER & WILLIAMS 

1911 







/55\~. 



INTRODUCTION 



The object of placing this little book in the hands 
of the employees of the various rail-roads is not to 
create the impression that the authors are supplied 
with all the knowledge there is pertaining, to the sub- 
ject, but is rather a treatise on the subject from our 
own point of observation. While rail-road employees 
and rail-road companies have come to realize that 
knowledge is power let us take into consideration some 
of the things which ought to be done, rather than be 
willing to criticize the things they have done, and if 
their efforts to direct some of the many employees of 
the rail-roads upon the right path in the manner of 
discharging their duties, our efforts to write this little 
book will not have been in vain. 

Willingness to learn, as well as to be properly 
adapted to a certain class of work or profession is one 
of the essential factors that spell SUCCESS. The de- 
mands of the rail-roads of to-day, like all other large 
business enterprises, require that its employes be thor- 
oughly familiar with the characteristics of their occupa- 
tion, and to the man who excels in his chosen field 
of labor, promotion is always his reward. 

While to the individual it may sometimes seem 
as though his particular efforts were not attracting 
the attention of the officials, nevertheless the man who 



4 INTRODUCTION 

goes along day after day, successfully doing his work, 
is the man who is always under the eyes of his em- 
ployer. 

This man needs not the suggestion and advice to 
keep him in line with his fellow men, but is held up to 
them as a fit example after which to pattern. Surely 
this reward is sufficient, for the employee is entitled 
to such praise but. he should not think it necessary for 
his officials to be loudly heralding his praises. To this 
man and also to his brother fellow man (the one who 
is always the subject of comment by his fellows and 
his employers) is this little book dedicated. 

Let us then in a brotherly spirit think of some of 
the things we should and should not do that we may 
better perform our duties with credit to ourselves and 
our employers. Do not think that because a man is 
new in this particular line of work, that it will be im- 
possible for him to learn or that it will be impossible 
to teach him. Just have a little patience, try him out, 
he may be a very apt scholar, perhaps you may be able 
to learn a lesson while trying to teach him one. He 
may some day become a very valuable man to the com- 
pany, and he will surely remember you in case you 
tried and did give him a successful start. 

Always bear in mind that we ourselves were once 
new men, and in all probabilities as green as any one. 
Stop and think how hard it was for you to learn some 
of the things you did not know. Don't think because 
you are now an engineer that you never was a fireman. 
In a few short years this fireman may also be an en- 



INTRODUCTION 5 

gineer, and you may then have to compete with him 
then, even if he was at one time only a fireman. 

Men of to-day are not only following in the foot- 
steps of others before them but are going a little be- 
yond those footsteps. While rail-roads require a great 
deal of their men, still they do not require more than 
the men can do (whatever man has done man may do). 
So that when you have reached your capacity as an 
individual you have done all they require of you, pro- 
viding you have not fallen below the average. Pre- 
pare yourself for all emergencies. You can master what 
others have done. Stand on your own ability and little, 
if any, fault will be found with you. 

Be interested in your work, be always on time, do 
things intelligently and you will have the key jto suc- 
cess. 

We will now quote a little book of don't, complied 
by Mr. Rob't. Quale, Sup't. of Motive Power and 
Machinery of the C. & N. W. R. R. While this book 
has been supplied to the employees of the C. & N. W. 
R. R. no doubt it will fall into the hands of the em- 
ployees of other roads, and as the information con- 
tained in Mr. Quale's book is so valuable we insert, 
and quote it, in hopes that it will be the means of start- 
ing some of the many employees of rail-roads on the 
right path. 

I am now to call your attention to a chapter of 
don'ts. I put it this way in order to make it stand out 
more boldly than if it were surrounded by too many 
words. You will please understand that the writer 



6 INTRODUCTION 

knows that it WOULD be unnecessary for this circu- 
lar letter to be placed in the hands of many men, while 
on the other hand he knows it will do good to a great 
many, and we trust will result in an economical oper- 
ation. 

FIRST. Don't think because you are only one 
engineer or fireman that what you do does not amount 
to much. It is the little drops of water that make the 
mighty ocean, and the little grains of sand that make 
up this old earth of ours, so after all it is the little 
things that count, and just so each individual in the 
aggregate, can do a great deal. If each engine crew 
saves one quarter ton of coal, this on a thousand loco- 
motives, would result in a daily saving of two hundred 
tons, or in round figures $157,000 a year. 

SECOND. Don't neglect being at the round- 
house in ample time to examine the firing tools on the 
engine before leaving the roundhouse. See that your 
ash-pan, grates, and flue sheets are in good condition to 
make the run. 

THIRD. Don't fill the boiler full of cold water 
as soon as you get out of the house. Leave a space 
so the injector can be worked to prevent popping, 
while the air-pipe exhaust is fanning the fire, pumping 
air to make the terminal air-brake test. If you do 
this your fire will be in better condition to pull out 
with. The noise of open pop prevents trainmen from 
locating the leaks. 

Don't forget to start the lubricator a few minutes 
before leaving a terminal. Set it to feed regularly. 



INTRODUCTION / 

The proper lubrication of valves and cylinders saves 
coal. 

FOURTH. Don't forget, when starting trains, to 
do so carefully, thus preventing damage to draw bars 
and draft-rigging. By so doing you will save serious 
delays to your own as well as to other trains. All 
delays mean extra fuel consumption to make up time 
lost. 

Don't neglect using the blow-off cock, as it keeps 
the boiler clean and the water in good condition, and 
insures better circulation in the boiler. RESULT: 
Better steaming engine and a saving in coal. 

FIFTH. Don't allow the engine to slip. This 
is an unnecessary waste of coal, wears out tires and 
rails, causes great damage to pins, axles and running 
gear, and generally results in spoiling a fire. 

SIXTH. Don't pull out of a station with a train 
(after engine has stood for a while, and fire was al- 
lowed to get low) without first giving the fireman a 
chance to build up the fire. The time lost waiting to 
do this will save coal and can better be made up before 
reaching the next station. Remember this when you 
get a time order. 

SEVENTH. Don't leave the reverse lever down in 
corner longer than is necessary when pulling out of 
stations. No rule can be made to govern how the 
throttle and reverse lever should be used. This must 
be acquired by practice and observing the performance 
of the engine. Bring the lever up as speed is acquired. 
The lever hooked well towards the center of quadrant, 



8 INTRODUCTION" 

with throttle well open, usually gives better results 
than using the throttle to govern the speed. Up to 
five years ago we considered it good practice with our 
smaller power, to run with wide open throttle, and as 
short a point of cut-off as was possible consistent with 
weight of train, but in our heavier and larger engines 
we find that it is better at all times to throttle the en- 
gine. Particular attention is called to all wide fire-box 
type of engines. The engineer can permit the reverse 
lever in these engines to remain low in the quadrant 
when starting from a station, for a greater length of 
time than with the other type of locomotives, without 
pulling the fire or loosing steam. When you are run- 
ning on short time, it would be good judgment for the 
engineer to take advantage of this when pulling out of 
a station. In this engineers will use their best judg- 
ment. 

EIGHTH. Don't put four, five or more shovel- 
fuls of coal into the fire at once. One or two shovel- 
fuls will give better results, and these two should not 
be thrown in the same spot. It is good practice to fire 
on one side of the fire-box at one time, and the next 
time on the other side of the box, in Order that the 
bright fire on one side may take up the gases from the 
fresh coal on the other side. This will reduce the 
smoke and give more steam. 

Always fire as light as possible consistent with 
your work. Very heavy firing will make your flues 
and staybolts leak, and in time will crack your fire- 
box sheets. The reason for this is that when you have 



INTRODUCTION 9 

a very heavy fire the air will not pass up through it 
readily, and the gases pass off, because there is not 
sufficient oxygen to unite with them to produce com- 
bustion, and as gases must get air from somewhere, 
the air is pulled through the fire-door, causing the 
chilling of flues and sheets as referred to above. 

NINTH. Don't allow steam to escape at pops un- 
necessary. Frequent blowing off at pops shows im- 
proper judgment, and implies that the engine crew is 
not practising economy. Tests have demonstrated 
that one-fourth of a pound per second or fifteen pounds 
per minute is wasted. This amounts to about one ordi- 
nary scoopful, and in most cases may as well have been 
thrown on the ground as into the firebox. There are 
only 133 scoopfuls in a ton of coal, so you can see that 
you would only have to have your pops open 133 times 
a day in order to throw a ton of coal away. 

TENTH. Don't open the fire-box door to prevent 
steam blowing off at pops when engine is working; 
dropping the dampers is a better practice. The supply 
of air is cut off, and combustion is partially suspended. 
When engine stops blowing off open the dampers 
again, before putting in coal. This method keeps fire 
in better condition and saves coal. You have, no 
doubt, noticed that on class R. Locomotives, when 
working hard on a hill you have to shut your dampers 
to keep your fire from turning over. This is because 
the exhaust pulls too much air up through the grates, 
and causes your coal to be too active, and to prevent 
this activity of coal, as well as increased combustion 



10 Introduction 

which follows, we consider it a good thing to drop your 
dampers as per above. 

ELEVENTH. Don't insist on having the maxi- 
mum steam pressure with pops opening occasionally 
when handling light trains, when less pressure will 
handle the train on time, avoiding the opening of the 
pops. 

TWELFTH. Don't forget, when engine is shut 
off for stations to drop your dampers, opening the fire- 
box door slightly if necessary, and using the blower to 
carry off the black smoke. 

THIRTEENTH. Don't blame the engine or coal 
if engine is not steaming properly, before you have 
ascertained whether or not both of you are doing your 
duty. Talk it over; see if the injector is not supply- 
ing more water than is being used, or that fireman is 
not firing too light or too heavy. Heavy firing is 
responsible for more poor steaming engines than the 
lighter method. You all know some engine crews have 
better success than others with same engines and con- 
ditions. Think a little, there must be some cause for 
this. 

Don't wait until you get a signal to pull out before 
building up the fire. This should be done gradually 
until the proper thickness has been reached. A good 
fire to start is essential to maintain the proper steam 
pressure, while engine is working hard getting train 
under way. Afterwards distribute the coal on sides, 
ends, and in corners. Do this systematically, keeping 
in mind where you placed the last sccopful, thus avoid- 



INTRODUCTION* II 

ing getting holes in fire, and preventing the piling up 
of the coal all in one place. Endeavor to keep the 
steam pressure uniform, with as little black smoke as 
possible. Experience has taught that engines with draft 
appliances properly adjusted require very little coal in 
center of fire-box. 

FOURTEENTH. Don't permit the water to 
get so high in the boiler that it is carried over into 
the valves and cylinders. This usually occurs when 
pulling out of stations, and the water carries off the 
oil, which not only results in cut valves and cylinders, 
but the extra friction damages the entire valve motion, 
to the detriment of the power of the engine and the 
coal record. 

Don't gauge the amount of water an engine will 
carry by water coming out of the stack. Keep it low 
enough to insure dry steam being used, because moist 
steam has the same effect as water. Usually one-half 
glass or two gauges give best results. Be careful, 
however, that when ascending a grade, and you are 
about to pitch over the other side, that you have suf- 
ficient water to keep your crown sheet thoroughly 
covered. If your custom has been to carry high water 
try less and note change in better handling of ton- 
nage, also saving in coal and oil. 

FIFTEENTH. Don't neglect to take advantage 
of your excess steam before your engine is about to 
pop off, by making a heater of your injector, blowing 
steam back into the tank to warm the cold water, but 
avoid getting it so hot that the injector will not lift 



12 Introduction 

the water. By doing this you will keep your engine 
from blowing off at pops when standing at stations 
after boiler is filled up. You have all tried warming 
the water in the tank to help a poor steaming engine, 
with good results. What is good for a poor steaming 
engine will surely help a good engine to do better. 
Try it and you will find that it will not only save work 
for the fireman, but will make a better coal record for 
the engine crew, besides keeping the tank from sweat- 
ing, which you are aware spoils paint. 

SIXTEENTH. Don't think the fireman alone 
to blame for your coal record. The best and most 
economical fireman cannot make a showing with an 
engineer who supplies more water to boiler than is 
being used, and who shuts injector off only when the 
boiler is pumped full. The proper handling of the 
injector is one of the most important matters in saving 
coal. Feed water to boiler according to demands. If 
on through trains, keep water level as possible. If 
on way freight or switch trains, loose a little water 
between stations. Fill up again while drifting into, 
standing or switching at stations. The advantages of 
supplying less water than is being used between sta- 
tions are : It requires less coal to keep up steam pres- 
sure when running; also leaves a space so injector can 
be worked to avoid pops opening, and heavier fire can 
also be maintained to do switching, without the possi- 
bility of the fire being pulled. 

Don't pull out after making a stop with injectors 
working. The water introduced during the period 



INTRODUCTION 13 

throttle was shut off is put in circulation throughout 
the boiler, and pointer on gauge drops back from five 
to twenty-five pounds. The fireman must then fire 
heavier to regain the lost steam, and naturally will 
use more coal. This condition exists also when engine 
has gone down grade with throttle shut or only slightly 
open. Shut the injector off before opening the 
throttle. If it is not your practice, try it and note the 
difference. 

SEVENTEENTH. Don't wait for the pops to 
open, and use this for a signal to put on the injector. 
Keep your eye on the air-gauge, steam-gauge and 
waterglass. You all know this can be done without 
distracting your attention from the track ahead. A 
look for an instant every mile or two will keep you 
informed and is a good habit. Doing this will also 
keep you posted on air pressure, and may avoid diffi- 
culties should the air pump stop. The fireman should 
also keep an eye on the water glass, and the engineer 
is sometimes compelled to keep the injector at work 
to keep the engine from blowing off. When glass is 
full, the fireman should fire lighter to give the engineer 
a chance to shut off the injector, and not have 
engine blow off. However, this condition should only 
exist when injector cannot be worked fine enough to 
just supply amount used. This sometimes occurs 
when card time is slow, or on down grade, or when 
running with light train. 

EIGHTEENTH. Don't put too much coal 
under the arch of engines having sloping fire boxes, 



14 INTRODUCTION 

because these engines naturally pull the coal ahead, 
which results in forward section of grates becoming 
stuck and clinkered over, and fire is pulled in back 
end of fire box. Experience and observation will 
teach you to put most of the coal in the back end of 
the firebox. 

NINETEENTH. Don't think an engine having 
two firebox doors requires twice the quantity of coal 
it would if engine had but one. The extra door is for 
the purpose of distributing the coal more evenly over 
the grate surface, with less effort on the part of the 
fireman. 

TWENTIETH. Don't' shovel large chunks of 
coal into the firebox, because you find them on the 
tank. The coal house men have instructions to break 
it in the size of an apple. If not properly broken, 
report it to road foreman of engines or to Master 
Mechanic, instead of fellow engineers or firemen, but 
don't think it a hardship to break some occasionally. 
Better break it than to throw in, in large chunks. 
They are foundations for clinkers. 

TWENTY-FIRST. Don't expect the fireman to 
fire the engine with one or two scoops to each fire, 
and also ring the bell for highway crossings and 
stations. Some engineers expect this. If engine is 
equipped with air bell-ringer, get into the habit of 
starting the bell ringer when blowing the whistle. 
By so doing, the habit will become as fixed as whis- 
tling for crossings and stations. Besides it is just as 
important. Remember the engineer is responsible. 



INTRODUCTION 15 

TWENTY-SECOND. Don't put in a heavy fire 
about the time the engine is shut off for a station 
or down grade. The heavy cloud of black smoke is 
evidence the engine crew is not working in harmony. 
If on train that stops at all stations, the fireman should 
guard against it and learn when to stop firing. He 
will be governed by grade, service and weather con- 
ditions. If train does not make all station stops, the 
engineer should keep the fireman informed of intended 
stops. 

TWENTY-THIRD. Don't forget that different 
qualities of coal and different make of grate used, 
govern the shaking of grates. Coal that fills up and 
clinkers requires more attention than the better 
grade. The object is to keep the grates free, so the 
proper amount of air can be admitted. 

TWENTY-FOURTH. Don't neglect cleaning 
your fire on trains that are long hours on the roads. 
Make use of the first opportunity. You will get bet- 
ter results with less labor and coal, and avoid leaky 
flues. Better clean out a small amount two or three 
times than not to clean it at all. 

Don't take coal or water oftener than necessary, 
as it requires an extra amount of coal to get a heavy 
train again in motion, especially on a grade. Good 
judgment is required, in order not to run short before 
getting to next coal chute or water tank. Where 
possible take water only from tank containing good 
water, and as little as you can from tanks containing 
poor water. 



1 6 INTRODUCTION 

TWENTY-FIFTH. Don't forget that leaks in 
the air pressure are being kept up by an equal amount 
of steam pressure. As it takes coal to make steam, 
air leakage means a waste of coal. Keep apparatus 
on your engine tight and insist on trainmen doing 
their part. 

TWENTY-SIXTH. Don't try to put more coal 
on tank than will lay on it securely. All coal dropped 
off by overloading is wasted. Also keep coal from 
falling out of gangway when running. This may be 
only a little each day but it all counts against your 
coal records, besides it looks badly when strewn along 
the tracks. You cannot save coal by the ton ; it must 
be in pounds which in time makes tons. 

TWENTY-SEVENTH. Don't forget to make 
an intelligent report on your work slip on arrival at 
the Round House. Consult your fireman in regard 
to any defect that has come to his notice, especially 
with grates, dampers or firing tools. 

TWENTY-EIGHTH. Don't neglect reporting 
the pop-valves ground in when they are leaking or 
when they blow back eight or ten pounds before seat- 
ing. Also report leaky piston rod and valve stem 
packings, or if cylinder packing or valves are blowing. 
All these leaks draw on the coal pile unnecessarily; 
as it takes coal to generate the wasted steam. This 
also applies to leaky steam heat appliances, cylinder 
cocks, etc. 

TWENTY-NINTH. Don't neglect looking at 
coal report each month to see how you stand in rela- 



INTRODUCTION 17 

tion to others in same service with whom you are 
comparable. The other crews get the same pay you 
do, and it should be your aim to be as economical with 
both fuel and supplies as they are, other things being 
equal. Keep posted and be with the average. It will 
be to your credit and interest some time ; therefore 
aim to be at the top. 

THIRTIETH. Don't think when coal report 
shows you using only two pounds more per ioo ton 
mile than other crews in same service, it is close 
enough. This means two pounds more used for every 
mile you hauled ioo tons, — or another way, two 
pounds for every ioo tons hauled one mile. Figure 
this up and you will find in hauling 1,000 tons ioo 
miles, a difference of 2,000 pounds or one ton. This 
method of showing up the individual record is more 
equitable to all than on basis of mile run per ton of 
coal. 

THIRTY-FIRST. Don't think, after reading 
over this chapter of Don'ts that you should save coal 
to the detriment of the service. The actual amount 
required to make up time, keep on time, or handle 
tonage, is not what we are trying to save ; it is the 
waste. You will notice the proper method of han- 
dling the engine to the extent of the economical use of 
fuel only has been considered. 

There is much more that might be said on this 
subject, but no doubt you will think by this time that 
enough has been said ; at least the writer will think so 
if the results obtained will show they have thoroughly 



l8 INTRODUCTION 

digested this chapter of "Don'ts" and put the same 
into practice, and get the returns we are looking for. 

You of course understand that this is not written 
in any but the most cheerful spirits, and this depart- 
ment urges upon you an intelligent, thoughtful earnest 
compliance with the same. 

Yours truly, 
R. QUAYLE, Supt. M. P. & M. 
Chicago, March 28, 1901. 



FIRST YEAR'S MECHANICAL QUESTIONS 
AND ANSWERS. 



i. What are the fireman's duties on his arrival 
at the Round House, previous to going out? 

Ans. In regards to the duties of Locomotive 
Fireman on his arrival at the Round House, he should 
first consult the bulletin board, ascertain the correct 
time, what Engineer, and engine he is to have, com- 
pare his time with a standard clock, or get same from 
train dispatcher, and register in or out, according to 
the custom of the road by which he is employed. He 
should assist the Engineer in getting the engine ready 
in whatever way he can, such as seeing that the firing 
tools are all on the engine, also signal appliances, and 
devices, note the water level, and condition of the 
fire, getting same in condition to make the trip. He 
should assist the engineer in whatever way he can to 
get the engine out on time, according to the rule 
Master Mechanic regards to getting out before leav- 
ing time of train. 

He should also examine grates, to see that they 
are in working condition, note condition of fire-box, 
see that it is free from leaks. After getting out of the 
house he should take water, examine the ash-pan, see 
that the man provided for that purpose cleans the 
same. 

He should have fire in good condition and suf- 
19 



20 POCKET EDITION OF 

ficient water in the boiler to enable engineer to use 
blow-off cock at place provided for that purpose. 
After such performance he should build up the fire 
according to train and conditions of the trip, and at all 
times bearing in mind the use of the injector to keep 
the engine from blowing off and avoid making any 
black smoke. 

He should at all times be under the instructions 
of his engineer, and try to supply the water to the 
boiler and build up the fire so as to have both in proper 
condition to pull out of the terminal without putting 
any more water into the boiler until train is well in 
motion and engine hooked up. 

After train is in motion he should fire as light as 
possible, consistent with the work the engine has to 
do, trying at all times to prevent the making of black 
smoke and having the engine blowing off. 

2. Have you acquired the habit of comparing 
time with the engineer? And do you insist on seeing 
the train orders? 

Ans. Yes. 

3. What causes the tank to sweat? And what 
effect has it on paint? What would you do to prevent 
it? 

Ans. The tank sweats on account of the water in 
the tank being colder than the atmosphere. This 
causes the paint to crack and peel off leaving the bare 
metal to rust. In order to prevent this the water in 
the tank should be raised to the same temperature as 
the atmosphere by making a heater out of the injector. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 21 

4. Describe the ash-pan, its use, and what would 
be the effect if allowed to fill up ? 

Ans. The ash-pan is a rectangular box, provided 
with dampers at each end, and its uses are, to be a 
receptacle for ashes, also to regulate the draught of 
the fire. There are also ash-pans with sliding bot- 
toms but their uses are the same. If the pans were 
allowed to fill up the air would be excluded, thus 
destroying the draught and there would be danger of 
burning out the grates and grate shaker bars. The 
pan would also be warped out of shape and in all 
probabilities burned badly. This would cause fire to 
be strewn along the track setting fire to any burnable 
substance along the right of way. When the air 
necessary for furnace combustion is excluded by a 
badly filled up ash pan a poor steaming engine is the 
result. 

5. What advantage is it to the fireman to know 
the grades of the track, and the location of the sta- 
tions? 

Ans. With this information he can more intelli- 
gently and economically fire the engine, thus avoid- 
ing the engine blowing off and the making of black 
smoke. 

6. What is the source of power? 
Ans. Heat is the source of power. 

7. What is steam, and how is it generated? 
Ans. Steam is an invisible gas. It is generated 

by the heat coming in contact with the water, raising 
the same above the boiling temperature. This causes 



22 POCKET EDITION OF 

the water to assume the form of a bubble, which on 
reaching the surface of the water it bursts into the gas 
called steam. 

8. What is the composition of bituminous coal? 
Ans. The composition of bituminous coal is 

Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon, Sulphur and 
Ash. 

9. What is carbon and where do we obtain 
oxygen? 

Ans. Carbon is non-metallic substance, one of 
the elements of which the diamond represents it in 
its purest state. We obtain Oxygen from the atmos- 
phere. 

10. What per cent, of oxygen is there in the 
atmosphere? 

Ans. The atmosphere is about 20 per cent, or 
!"5 oxygen. 

n. What per cent, of carbon is there in bitumi- 
nous coal? 

Ans. There is from 60 to 90 per cent, carbon in 
bitumenous coal. 

12. What is the igniting temperature of carbon 
and oxygen? 

Ans. The igniting temperature of these two sub- 
stances is about 1,800 degrees Fahrn. 

13. What other heat giving properties are there 
in bituminous coal? 

Ans. The hydro-carbons, and other gases, 
which when liberated and ignited, form one of the 
most heat-giving properties of coal. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING ' 23 

14. In what condition should a fire be to con- 
sume these gases? 

Ans. It should be at a very high temperature, 
or a white heat. This condition can be maintained by 
a systematic method of firing, such as firing light and 
often. Firing heavy, such as putting four or more 
scoops of coal on a bright fire at one time, has the 
effect of cooling the gases below the igniting point. 
The gases which are then liberated pass off un-con- 
sumed, and black smoke is the result. Black smoke is 
not combustible after it is once formed and the best 
heat-giving properties of the coal are wasted. It 
should be the fireman's effort to adopt the method of 
firing light and often, as the results obtained are not 
only more satisfactory, but much more economical. 
While building up the fire at the stations this method 
will be found satisfactory, — open the blower slightly, 
fire one side of the box at a time, regulate the draught 
of the fire by raising and lowering dampers (if engine 
is so equipped), bearing in mind that a sufficient 
amount of oxygen must be admitted to the fire through 
the grates to form perfect furnace combustion. These 
results cannot be obtained by heavy firing and a 
waste of fuel and black smoke is the result. 

The arch in a locomotive fire box consists of a 
composition of fire clay in the form of a brick. These 
bricks are supported in the fire box on an arch flue or 
circulation flue, and are placed a sufficient distance 
from the flue sheet to allow a circulation of the gases 
underneath them and through the flues. 



24 POCKET EDITION OF 

There are several forms of these bricks, but the 
most common are the solid brick. The solid arch con- 
sists of the solid brick, while the hollow arch consists 
of the hollow brick, or the double combustible surface 
by reason of having a cavity through the brick. This 
double surface retains the gases longer before liberat- 
ing them, thus forming a more perfect combustion in 
the firebox. 

These different forms of arches have another 
advantage namely : the protection of the flues by pre- 
venting the cold air from striking them while the 
firebox door is open. These results, such as flue pro- 
tection, and a more perfect combustion cannot be 
obtained on an engine not so equipped. 

15. When and why should we wet the coal 
down? 

Ans. Some authorities differ as to the wetting of 
the coal as an aid to combustion, but it should be wet 
for cleanliness sake. The proper time is before the 
engine is started and as often thereafter as necessary 
to keep down the dust. 

16. Why are grates made to shake and why 
should they be shaken? 

Ans. Grates are made to shake in order to rid the 
fire of ash and to prevent clinkers from forming. If 
the fire is not rid of the ash that forms the air will be 
excluded from the fire and a poor steaming engine is 
the result. Ashes and clinkers also tend to cause black 
smoke. Different make of grates and different grades 
of coal govern the shaking of grates, the best results 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 25 

being obtained while the engine is standing still or if 
necessary it is in some cases permissible to shake them 
while the engine is working light or drifting. It is 
very bad policy to shake the grates while the engine is 
working as the exhaust will tear holes in the fire and 
then a large amount of cold air is admitted and the 
gases are cooled below the igniting point. This causes 
the formation of black smoke, uneven expansion and 
contraction takes place in the firebox and leaky flues 
and sheets are the results. 

17. What do you consider abuse to a boiler? 

Ans. Improper firing, such as allowing the pres- 
sure to rise and fall by firing too heavy or too light, 
not keeping an even steam pressure causing uneven 
expansion and contraction, the improper use of the 
blower or the injector, not supplying the water to the 
boiler according to evaporation, firing with the door 
open, these things all tend to bring about boiler abuse. 

18. Describe the blower, its use and abuse. 

Ans. A blower consists of a tap of live steam at 
some convenient place on the boiler head (usually on 
the fountain) conveyed to the smoke box through a 
pipe, controlled by a valve. This steam is emptied or 
emitted in the smoke box causing a partial vacuum, 
the air from the atmosphere rushing through the 
grates to fill this vacuum, causes a draught on the 
fire. The blower should be used to create a draught 
on the fire when the engine is not working, when clean- 
ing or dumping a fire, and to help in the prevention*of 
black smoke. The abuses of the blower are using it 



26 POCKET EDITION OF 

too strong at any time, or to use same when the engine 
is working steam. 

19. How does the exhaust steam create a draught 
through the fire? 

Ans. The exhaust steam expanding as it passes 
through the nozzle, petticoat sleeve and stack causes a 
suction that in turn creates a vacuum in the smoke 
box while the air rushing in through the grates and 
flues to fill up vacuum causes a draught on the fire. 

20. Why is it necessary for a supply of air 
through grates in furnace combustion? 

Ans. It is absolutely necessary to have air in the 
firebox for furnace combustion as there must be a cer- 
tain amount of oxygen in order to bring about this 
mixing in order to produce the burning of any burn- 
able substance. This theory can be proven by turning 
the scoop on the firebox door while the engine is work- 
ing and noticing the mixing of the gases. 

21. What is the effect if too little, or too much, 
air is admitted to the fire in furnace combustion? 

Ans. If too little air is supplied it is impossible 
to obtain combustion. If too much, the gases are 
cooled below igniting point, and they will pass off as 
black smoke. 

22. How should you take care of a boiler with 
leaky flues? 

Ans. When an engine has leaky flues you should 
keep the temperature in the firebox as high and as 
uniform as possible, keeping the heat against the flue 
sheet, and if necessary use the blower while standing 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 2.J 

to accomplish this result. When the leaks are in the 
side sheets low enough would bank the fire against 
them, causing the coal to cake, and thus not allowing 
the leak to spread over the fire, thereby reducing the 
temperature of the firebox by deadening the fire. 

23. What amount of water ought to be evapo- 
rated in a locomotive boiler to a pound of coal ? 

Ans. About 8 or 9 pints to the pound of coal. 

24. What is the advantage of a large grate area? 
Ans. The advantages are that a lighter fire can 

be carried, a more perfect combustion with a poorer 
grade of coal, also a greater heating surface, thereby 
preventing the necessity of forcing the fire. 

25. Can you fire an engine more intelligently by 
watching the water level? 

Ans. An engine can be fired more successfully 
by watching the water level as by so doing the fire can 
be maintained in a more perfect condition, a more 
uniform pressure of steam kept, expansion and con- 
traction remain the same, and the work of the engine 
will be much more economical from both the running 
and the firing standpoint. 

26. What are the fireman's duties on his arrival 
at the terminal in regards to dampers and signals? 

Ans. On the arrival at the terminal the boiler 
should be left full of water, a good fire in the box, 
dampers closed, and all signals that have been dis- 
played removed and placed in their proper places in 
the cab. 



SECOND YEAR'S MECHANICAL EXAMINA- 
TION. 



Has there been any thing to hinder you, or to 
prevent you from taking this examination? 

Ans. This question can be answered in the nega- 
tive, as by a few minutes of study each day the whole 
list of questions can be mastered in a very short time. 
The information necessary to successfully answer 
these questions, can be obtained from the different 
officials of the different railroads, and books are now 
so cheap, that any man who cares to make a success 
of the business he has chosen will not fail to provide 
himself with some of the many kinds of books, per- 
taining to the subject. 

i. How many cubic feet of air are necessary for 
the combustion of one pound of coal in a locomotive 
firebox. 

Ans. It requires from 250 to 300 cubic feet of 
air to the pound of coal, to produce perfect combus- 
tion. 

2. What, in your opinion, is the best way to fire 
a locomotive? 

Ans. In order to successfully fire a locomotive 
the fireman, must have good judgment, must be well 
acquainted with the conditions under which the engine 
is being operated, as follows : Always bearing in mind 

28 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING , 20, 

that successful and economical discharge of his duties 
depend upon attention to such things as, being familiar 
with the road upon which he is working, close watch 
upon the method of handling the engine by his 
engineer, taking into consideration that the train, time 
to be made, weather conditions, and physical charac- 
teristics of the road have much, and in fact all to do 
with the method to be used in firing. He should 
always bear in mind that a close watch on the water, 
or proper pumping is the largest factor in the success- 
ful operation of the engine from both the running and 
firing standpoint. He should always try to maintain 
his fire in as good a condition as possible making 
allowances for poor coal and hard steaming engine. 
Keep his fire as light as possible, consistent with the 
work the engine has to do, bearing in mind that if the 
engine does not steam with a light clean fire, pro- 
viding it is not too light that no better results can be 
obtained after it has become heavy and clinkered due 
to heavy firing (commonly called slugging). He 
should take advantage of stops to notice the condition 
of the fire, and if necessary, while standing is the 
proper time to shake the grates. See to it that the ash 
pan is not so full that the draught is effected by the air 
being shut off from the fire, for without this oxygen 
it is impossible to get that form of combustion which 
produces economical results. Try to get the method 
that will suit the engine, rather than make your 
method suit the engine. Railroads have come to 



30 POCKET EDITION OF 

realize that brains, rather than muscular prowess, pro- 
duce the best results. 

3. What is the cause of the drumming noise 
when engine is shut off? Can it and should it be 
avoided? Why? 

Ans. The drumming noise heard when the 
engine is shut off is caused by the rapid explosion. of 
the hydro-carbon gases. This can and should be 
avoided as it is very annoying to passengers. This 
drumming or vibrating noise will often shake the 
last car in a 15-car passenger train, which is very 
annoying to the occupants of the car. This can be 
stopped by slightly opening the firebox door or by 
closing the dampers, if engine is so equipped. This 
drumming noise while very annoying to passengers 
also has certain injurious results on the machinery of 
the engine, but is no cause for fear as it shows the 
fire to be in good condition. 

4. Describe the general form of a locomotive 
boiler? 

Ans. The general form of a locomotive boiler is 
cylindrical in shape, but the firebox end is generally 
larger than the barrel of the boiler. The boiler con- 
sists of a firebox end, and the cylindrical portion con- 
taining the flues which run from the firebox to the 
smoke box end. The firebox consists of a back sheet, 
side sheet, flue sheets and a crown sheet. The space 
between the inside and outside sheets is called the 
leg of the boiler. 

5. How does the wide firebox differ from other 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING - 31 

types of boilers, and what advantages has it over 
other boilers? 

Ans. The wide firebox differs not only in con- 
struction but has other advantages. The box extends 
out over the wheels which gives it a much larger grate 
area than is possible with the older types. This larger 
grate area permits of a greater heating surface, a more 
uniform and slower rate of combustion. 

6. To what strain is the firebox subjected? 
Ans. The firebox is subjected to a crushing 

strain. The weight of water and pressure within have 
a tendency to rend the box apart, also the atmospheric 
pressure from the outside has a tendency to force the 
sheets in. 

7. Describe a locomotive firebox. 

Ans. The general form of a locomotive firebox 
is rectangular in shape, consisting of back sheet, side 
sheet, flue sheet and crown sheet. The crown sheet 
forms the top or roof of the box, and the space between 
the inside and outside sheets is known as the leg of 
the boiler. 

8. How are the sheets of a firebox supported? 
In what manner is a crown sheet supported? 

Ans. The sheets of the firebox are supported by 
a threaded bolt known as a stay bolt. This bolt is 
screwed through the two sheets and riveted over. 
These bolts are usually about four inches apart. The 
crown sheet is supported, either by crown bars or by 
radial stays. 

9. What is the bad feature about crown bars? 



$2 POCKET EDITION OF 

What are the advantages of radial stayed crown 
sheets? 

Ans. The bad feature about crown bars is, that 
they are hard to keep clean, very expensive to repair, 
and b)^ some authorities it is claimed that they permit 
of a very poor circulation of water in the boiler. 

The advantage of a radial stayed crown sheet are, 
that the crown sheet is much easier to keep clean, 
cheaper to repair, and permits of a better circulation 
of water in the boiler. So far as safety is concerned 
there is not considered any particular difference. 

10. What is known as the leg of the boiler? 

Ans. The part of a firebox between the inside 
and outside sheets of a boiler is known as the leg of 
the boiler. 

ii. How are the inside and outside sheets 
secured at the bottom? 

Ans. The inside and outside sheets are secured 
at the bottom by what is known as the foundation, or 
mug ring. This ring consists of a solid piece of metal 
usually about four inches square, and is the foundation 
on which the firebox end of the boiler is built. 

12. Is it objectionable to run tanks over or 

spill water at stand pipes? Why? 

Ans. It is objectionable to run tanks over for fol- 
lowing reasons : In freezing weather this causes ice 
to be formed around pen stocks and water tanks, and 
on the backs of tenders, which is very dangerous in 
winter. It is also very wasteful. In summer it washes 
away the gravel from the track destroying the road 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING - 33 

bed. This waste is very expensive, and in some locali- 
ties, where the pumping facilities are limited, is very 
much felt. There is no real good excuse why water 
should be wasted, any more than any thing else be- 
longing to the company. 

13. What is a wagon top boiler? 

Ans. A wagon top boiler is one in which the fire- 
box end is much larger, than its cylindrical portion. 

14. Why are boilers provided with steam domes? 
Ans. The boiler is provided with a steam dome 

to furnish a receptable, or place for the collection of 
dry steam, also a place for the boiler fittings, such as 
the whistle, safety valves, throttle valve, and etc. 

15. What must be the condition of a boiler to 
give the best results? 

Ans. The boiler must be clean, free from corro- 
sion and incrustation, such as limey deposits, and 
have a good circulation. 

16. What causes the water to circulate in the 
boiler? 

Ans. By circulation of the water in the boiler is 
meant, the movement of the water caused by the 
coldest water settling nearest the highly heated sheet. 
The hot water rising up through the other water in 
the form of a bubble, causes a movement known as 
circulation. Or the fact that the cold water moving 
to the heated sheets and displacing the hotter water- 
may be called the circulation of the water in the 
boiler. 



34 POCKET EDITION OF 

17. (a) What would be the effect if the leg of 
the firebox became filled with mud? 

(b) What would be the results if firebox sheets 
became overheated? 

Ans. If the leg of the firebox became filled with 
mud, the water would be excluded from the sheets 
and they would become what is known as mud burned 
and would in all probabilities be forced from their 
stays. 

If the firebox sheets became overheated the metal 
would become soft and the pressure of steam would 
force the sheets off their stays and an explosion would 
be the result. 

18. Would it be advisable to put water onto a 
sheet that had become bare and redhot? 

Ans. While this question has been answered 
by actual tests and under certain conditions, the intro- 
duction of water on heated sheets only served to cool 
the metal, the writers think that it would not be 
advisable as the sheets being red hot would in all 
probabilities warp and pull off their stays. If not the 
formation of steam so suddenly might bring about 
disastrous results, such as an explosion. 

19. In the event of losing the water in the boiler 
from any cause, how would you be governed? 

Ans. In the event of losing the water in the boiler 
from any cause, or being uncertain as to its true level, 
the throttle should be eased off and the gauge cocks 
opened to ascertain the true level. In case the water 
level is below the bottom gauge cock the throttle 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING , 35 

should be opened and the reverse lever hooked well 
up in the quadrant. If the water could not be raised to 
the bottom gauge cock the fire should be dumped to 
protect the boiler. If the water shows at the gauge 
cocks, or water glass the injectors should be put to 
work and the boiler filled to a safe working level. 

20. What effect has the stoppage of a large num- 
ber of flues? 

Ans. If a large number of flues became stopped 
up the boiler is robbed of that amount of heating sur- 
face, and also cause the engine to tear holes in the 
fire. This also causes the fire to burn unevenly, a 
poor steaming engine and in many instances leaky 
flues and sheets is the result. 

21. Why is water delivered so far away from the 
firebox? 

Ans. Water is admitted to the front end of the 
boiler so that it will attain a certain degree of heat 
before it reaches the highly heated sheets or the fire- 
box. If the water was admitted at or near the fire- 
box (the water being practically cold), would be 
liable to bring about very uneven expansion and con- 
traction. Leaky flues and sheets, a poor steaming 
engine due to the fact that the greatest degree of heat 
would be absorbed before it could reach the flues, 
where the greatest amount of water is stored.^. The 
manner and place of admitting water to the boiler 
has much to do with its proper circulation. 

22. What part of a locomotive boiler has the 
greatest pressure? Why? 



36 POCKET EDITION OF 

Ans. The crown sheet and legs of the boiler are 
subject to the greatest strain as they have the weight 
of water as well as the pressure of steam to stand. 
The belly of the boiler has practically the same strain. 

23. What is the object of the hole drilled in the 
end of the stay bolt? 

Ans. The hole drilled in the end of the stay bolt 
is known as a tell tale hole, and its purpose is to detect 
a broken bolt. The hole is usually about 3-16 of an 
inch in size and extends just through the outs 
sheet, this being where the bolt usually breaks. 

24. What will cause the engine to tear holes in 
the fire? 

Ans. Holes are usually torn in a fire when an 
engine slips, with a light or badly clinkered fire. Also 
when an engine has a very small nozzle, or is very 
sharp on the fire due to the adjustment of the draught 
appliances. By some authorities it is claimed that a 
large nozzle will likewise cause the engine to tear 
holes in the fire, as the exhaust being so free, causes 
the fire to be lifted in a body and holes are the 
result. 

25. Name the various adjustable appliances in 
the front end by which the fire is regulated. 

Ans. The adjustable appliances in the front end 
are, the diaphram, the petticoat, pipe and sleeve, and 
the nozzle tip. 

26. Explain what adjustment can be made and 
the effect of each adjustment? 

Ans. The diaphram is used to regulate the burn- 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING - 3? 

ing of the fire evenly over the box. Lowering the 
diaphram increases the draught through the bottom 
flues, or increases the burning of the fire in the front 
end of the firebox. Raising the diaphram increases 
the draught through the top flues, or increases the 
burning of the fire in the back end of the firebox. 
Raising the petticoat and lowering the sleeve increases 
the draught all over the fire. Lowering the petticoat 
pipe and raising the sleeve, decreases the draught all 
over the fire. Raising the petticoat pipe increases the 
draught through the bottom flues, or in the front end 
of the box. Lowering the sleeve increases the draught 
through the top flues, or in the back end of the box. 
Increasing the size of the nozzle, decreases the draught 
all over the fire. Decreasing the size of the nozzle in- 
creases the draught all over the fire. 

27. What does it indicate when the exhaust 
issues strongest from one side of the stack? 

Ans. When the exhaust issues strongest from 
one side of the stack, it is an indication that either 
the petticoat pipe and sleeve are out of line with the 
stack, or that the nozzle is not in line with the stack. 

28. What is the effect of leaky steam joints 
inside the front end? 

Ans. Leaky steam pipes inside the front end 
cause a poor steaming engine due to the fact that they 
destroy the vacuum created by the exhaust steam. 
A good indication of leaky steam pipes is when the 
engine is shut off the steam and water quickly pick 



38 POCKET EDITION OF 

up. Another indication is that the engine burns a very 
red dirty fire. 

29. What causes the pull on the firebox door? 
Ans. The pull on the firebox door may be caused 

by a badly clinkered or heavy fire, dampers being 
closed, or the ash pan full of ashes and no chance for 
the fire to get the air through the grates, consequently 
in order to get air to supply the vacuum being created 
in the front end it must be supplied from some other 
source, hence the pull on the door. A large number 
of flues stopped up will also bring about this result. 

30. If upon opening the firebox door you dis- 
covered what is commonly called a red fire, what 
might be the cause? 

Ans. This red fire might be caused by a heavy 
clinkered fire, leaky steam-pipe or a badly filled up 
ash pan, or a leaky firebox will in some instances 
cause the fire to burn red. 

31. Is it not a waste of fuel to open firebox door 
to prevent pops from opening? How can this be pre- 
vented more economically? 

Ans. It is a waste of fuel to open the firebox 
door to prevent the engine from blowing off, and 
shows that the fireman is not practicing very rigid 
rule of economy. This can and should be prevented 
by a more systematic method, fire lighter, drop damp- 
ers (if engine is so equipped), increase the boiler feed 
if it is permissible, if not it is better practice to put 
on the heater and blow the surplus steam back into 
the tank, raising the temperature of the feed water a 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING ' 39 

few degrees, thereby materially aiding in coal econ- 
omy, as well as preventing the tank from sweating 
in warm weather which spoils the paint. 

32. After steam heat throttle was opened how 
would you regulate the reducing valve to control the 
pressure? 

Ans. In order to regulate the steam heat pres- 
sure after throttle was opened would increase or 
decrease the tension on the regulating spring until the 
steam heat gauge showed the desired pressure. 

33. In winter when steam heat is not in use what 
should be done? 

Ans. In cold or freezing weather on an engine 
equipped with a steam heat line, a slight tension 
should be placed on the reducing valve, so as to open 
the supply valve, the steam heat throttle should then 
be opened slightly so as to allow a circulation of 
steam through the pipes to prevent them from freez- 
ing up. 

34. Describe the principal upon which the in- 
jector works. 

Ans. The principal upon which the injector 
works embodies several different theories. Steam 
under a given pressure escapes with a much greater 
velocity through a hole or an orifice, than water will 
under the same conditions. Steam has 2.2 times as 
much momentum or force as water under the same 
pressure and conditions. Under 180 pounds pressure 
steam would expand while issuing, reaching at the 
end of the nozzle a velocity of 3,600 feet per second, 



40 POCKET EDITION OF 

while water having no expansion would reach a 
velocity of 164 feet per second. 

Steam 3,600 feet per second. Jet at 180 pounds 
per square inch. 

Water 164 feet per second. 

Therefore for water to enter the boiler with its 
own pressure, against its own pressure we must have 
at least 164 feet per second as the momentum of the 
combined jet. 

A good formula to figure out the action of the 
injector is: If the steam nozzle discharges one pound 
of steam per second, at 3,600 feet per second velocity, 
the momentum of the steam is 1.3600 or 3,600. If the 
vacuum caused by the action of the steam, lifts and 
draws 10 pounds of water per second, into the com- 
bining tube, at a velocity of 40 feet per second, its 
momentum is 10 times its lift or 400 feet per second, 
and that of the combined jet is 3,6004-400 or 4,000 feet 
per second. 

The weight of the combined jet is 11 pounds at the 
time of entering the delivery tube. Its velocity ought 
to be equal to 4,000 divided by 11 or 366 feet per 
second. But as the water and the steam do not unite 
in precisely the line of discharge, there is a loss of 
momentum and the velocity in the delivery tube is 
only 198 feet per second. But the jet only needs a 
velocity of 164 feet per second to enter the boiler at 
180 pounds pressure, or a pressure of 180 pounds on 
the check. Therefore the active jet in the delivery 
tube is able to overcome a pressure of 206 pounds per 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING ' 4-t 

square inch on the check. This overcomes the fric- 
tion of the branch pipe and the check. 

There are several other theories advanced by 
leading authorities, one of which is that the injector 
operates on the piston principals. The water from 
the steam nozzle to the check is compared to a piston, 
the pressure of steam on the larger end of the volume 
of water acts the same as a piston, and the water is 
pushed into the boiler as it were. The most usually 
accepted theory is that any moving body will over- 
come a still body, or motion overcomes force. Then 
the working principal of an injector will be described 
as, first the syphonetic, or the act of lifting the water 
from the tank to the injector, second the theory of 
induced currents, or the velocity of combined steam 
and water jet when forced through the expanding 
rings and tapers of the injector nozzles, causes it to 
gain in velocity to the extent that the water is able 
to enter the boiler with a greater pressure holding the 
check to its seat, than the pressure by which it is 
driven. 

35. What is the difference between a lifting and 
a non-lifting injector? 

Ans. The difference between a lifting and non- 
lifting injector is that, with the lifting injector the 
body of the injector is above the water level of the 
tank and gets its water by what is known as the 
priming jet, while with the non-lifting injector the 
water gets to the injector by gravity or what is known 
as the force jet, the injector being placed on or below 



42 DOCKET EDITION OP 

the water level. There are now some non-lifting 
injectors which have independent priming valves. 

36. Will the injector work with a leak between 
injector and tank? Why? Will it prime? 

Ans. An injector will work with a leak in the 
feed pipe, providing it is not too great, that is if the 
leak is below the water level of the tank. If the leak 
be a heavy one, and above the water level of the tank 
it will not work as the syphonetic principal of its 
operation is destroyed by the leak furnishing air. 

The injector will work providing the leak is below 
the water level. If it primes it will usually work. 

37. If it primes good, but breaks when steam is 
turned on wide, where would you expect to find the 
trouble ? 

Ans. If it primes good, but breaks when steam is 
turned on the trouble is ahead of the combining nozzle, 
it being understood that the injector is getting a suf- 
ficient volume of steam. There might be some obstruc- 
tion in the combining nozzle or delivery nozzle, the 
delivery nozzle might be lose or worn out of round, 
the lime check might be badly limed up, or stuck shut, 
the intermediate check might be stuck shut, or full of 
fine coal, the injector check might be stuck shut or 
the lift destroyed by scale, or the globe valve attach- 
ment to the check might be closed. 

38. If it will not prime where would you look 
. for the trouble ? 

Ans. If the injector would not prime I would 
first look to see if the tank contained water. It may 



Locomotive engineering 43 

be that the throttle valve at the fountain is not open 
wide and the injector is not getting sufficient steam, 
or that the injector check or throttle is leaking, 
destroying the possibility of creating a vacuum. There 
might be leaks about the body of the injector, the 
sprinkler hose might be open, there may be a leak in 
the feed pipe, the water ramb may be disconnected, 
the strainer may be stopped up, there may be a piece 
of waste in the water ramb, preventing the injector 
from priming, the heater cock may be screwed down, 
the tank valve may be disconnected, the vent plug may 
be out of the syphon tank valve connection, or the 
man-hole cover might be frozen down preventing a 
supply of air to force the water up to the injector, or 
the primer nozzle might be turned up side down 
blowing the steam back into the body of the injector, 
or the overflow pipe might be frozen up. The things 
that prevent the injector from priming are usually 
found back of the delivery nozzle toward the tank, 
with the exception of leaks in throttle and check 
valve. 

39. Will the injector prime if check valve leaks 
bad or is stuck up? If injector or throtttle leaks bad? 

Ans. The injector will not prime if the check is 
leaking bad or stuck up as the steam blowing back in 
the body of the injector destroys the possibility of 
the primer creating a vacuum. If the check has a 
globe valve attachment it can be shut off, and the 
injector will then prime, after the injector primes the 
globe valve must be opened and the injector will 



44 POCKET EDITION OF 4 

resume work. A leaky throttle has the same effect on 
the priming of the injector as a leaky check. Some 
times by opening the throttle quickly the hot water 
and steam will be momentarily blown out of the body 
of the injector and feed pipe, and the injector will 
some times prime, due to the rush of heavier cold 
water. 

40. If steam appeared at the overflow when 
priming valve was closed, how would you tell if leak 
was from throttle or priming valve? How would you 
know if check was leaking? 

Ans. If steam appeared at the overflow when the 
primer was closed, in order to tell whether the primer 
or throttle was leaking it would be necessary to put 
the injector to work. If the steam still showed at the 
overflow it would indicate that the primer was leaking. 
If steam does not appear after the injector is working, 
it is either the check or the throttle valve that was 
leaking. The indication of a leaky throttle valve are 
usually dry steam, while a leaky check shows both 
steam and water. In order to test for a certainty 
which of the two is leaking, the branch pipe valve or 
fountain valve leading to the injector should be closed 
off, if the leak continues (providing the fountain valve 
does not leak) it is the boiler check that is leaking. 

If the leak stops it is a good indication that the 
throttle valve is leaking. 

41. Will injector prime if primer valve leaks? 
Will it prevent its working? 

Ans. An injector will prime with a leaky priming 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 45 

valve, and will continue to prime when the injector 
is shut off, if leaking bad. This leak will not effect 
the operation of the injector, as the water can be 
stopped by closing the tank valve, or by opening the 
pet cock on the syphon pipe when the injector is not 
in use, or by closing heater valve. 

42. Will an injector work if the air cannot get 
into the tank as fast as the water is taken out? 

Ans. An injector will not work if the air cannot 
get into the tank as fast as the water is taken out, 
as the water in the tank must have the weight of the 
atmosphere on it in order to force it up to the vacuum 
created in the injector. 

43. Will an injector work if all the steam is not 
condensed by the water? 

Ans. An injector will not work to its full 
capacity if all the steam is not condensed by the 
water. 

44. If you had to take down tank hose, how 
would you stop the water from flowing out of the tank, 
that has the syphon tank connection, instead of the old 
style tank valve? 

Ans. To stop the water from running after the 
hose is disconnected, with the syphon tank connec- 
tion, the vent plug should be removed, or the pet cock 
should be opened. 

If the water should not stop, as has been the case 
the hose should be coupled up again and the heater 
put on for a few seconds, then remove the plug and 



46 POCKET EDITION OF 

take down the hose. This will serve to stop the 
water in case all other methods fail. 

45. Is the water glass safe to run by, if the water 
line in the glass is not moving up and down, with the 
motion of the engine? Explain. 

Ans. It is not safe to depend on the water glass, 
unless the water is in motion or has a good circula- 
tion when the engine is in motion. The water glass 
should never be entirely depended upon, even though 
there is a good circulation. The gauge cocks are the 
only safe and sure way by which the water level can 
be told. When there is no circulation in the glass, it 
should be either knocked out and another one placed 
in, or the cause of the sluggish movement of the water 
ascertained, and reminded. 

46. Is any more water used when the water 
foams in the boiler, than when it is solid? Explain. 

Ans. A great deal more water is used when the 
water in the boiler foams than when it is solid, as the 
water assumes the from of suds and becomes so light 
that it is carried over with the steam into the cylin- 
ders, and is thrown out of the stack. 

47. How would you prevent the injector and 
attachments from freezing when not in use? 

Ans. To prevent the injector and attachments 
from freezing, when not in use, the heater cock should 
be screwed down and the injector throttle opened 
slightly to allow of a slight circulation of steam, care 
should be taken to prevent blowing the hose off, the 
frost cock at the boiler check should be opened so a 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 47 

circulation of steam will prevent the delivery pipe 
from freezing up. 

48. Describe the manner in which a sight feed 
lubricator operates? 

Ans. The sight feed lubricator operates on the 
Hydrostatics of fluids, or liquids, specific gravity of 
oil, as compared to water, and heat and motion. The 
feeding of the modern lubricator is brought about by 
obtaining as near a perfect balance of pressures at 
the oil outlet, and the inlet as is possible. After this 
balance takes place the weight of water in the con- 
densing chamber, along with the specific gravity of 
oil, cause it to a level of the choke plug where it is 
met with a jet of steam from the equalizing tube and 
forced through the choke plug. It then continues its 
way to the valves by its own gravitation. 

The operation is as follows : after all connections 
have been closed of such as steam and water, and 
regulating feed valves, the drain plug should be 
opened and the water in the reservoir drained off. 
The filling plug should then be removed and the oil 
reservoir filled with clean strained valve oil, care being 
taken not to fill the reservoir too full of cold oil as 
there is danger of bursting the reservoir when the oil 
becomes heated. 

After replacing the filling plug, the steam valve 
should be opened and a few minutes after the water 
valve should be opened. After waiting a few seconds 
more the lubricator will be ready to feed. Its opera- 
tion is as follows : when the water valve is opened 



48 POCKET EDITION OF 

the water in the condensing chamber flows down 
underneath the oil and raises it up in the body of the 
oil reservoir, where it flows down through a pipe 
(called a stand pipe), to the bottom of the oil reser- 
voir, or to the oil channels leading to the regulating 
feed valves. The sight feed glasses have also filled 
with water from the equalizing tubes up to a level 
with the choke plug. Now upon opening of the 
regulating feed valves the drop of oil will pass up 
through the water in the sight feed glass, and upon 
reaching the choke plug will be met by a jet of steam 
from the equalizing tube and after being forced 
through the choke will be carried to the valves by its 
own gravity. 

49. Does the draught from an open cab window 
effect the working of the lubricator? Why? 

Ans. The draught from an open cab window 
will effect the working of the lubricator as it causes 
the oil in the oil reservoir to become heavy and the 
drop feeds much slower than is intended. 

50. What else causes irregularity in the working 
of lubricators? 

Ans. The choke plug worn large will cause 
irregular feeding, an imperfect balance at the oil out- 
let, either caused by high back pressure or by stopped 
up equalizing tubes. Dirt or sediment of any kind 
will also bring about irregular feeding. 

51. If the lubricator feeds faster when throttle is 
closed than open, where is the trouble? 

Ans. When the choke plugs are worn large the 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 49 

lubricator will feed faster with the throttle closed, 
than when open, due to the fact that the balance at 
the oil outlet is destroyed by a high back pressure 
from the steam chest. The oil will be held in the glass 
and tallow pipe until the throttle is closed off, caus- 
ing a very irregular feed. Most all of the troubles in 
irregular feeding have been overcome in the modern 
lubricator, the balance feature being more perfect by 
reason of placing the choke plug at the steam chest, 
instead of in the tallow pipe at the lubricator. 

52. Will any bad results ensue from filling the 
lubricator full, with cold oil? 

Ans. This is very dangerous on the older styles 
of lubricators as the oil expands about 1-5 in volume, 
(when heated) and there being no provision made for 
this expansion is liable to burst the cup. On the 
newer types of lubricators there is a dead air space 
that takes care of this expansion. It is better policy 
not to fill the cup full of oil and even then the safest 
thing to do is to open the steam and water valves, 
this will relieve the cup of expansion that takes place 
when the oil becomes heated. 

53. If the sight feeds get stopped up how would 
you clean them out? 

Ans. With the bulls eye type would open the 
sight feed glass cleaning plugs, open the steam and 
water valve on the condenser, allowing the steam to 
blow through these vents will clean out the sight feed 
glasses, then close the cleaning plugs, and open the 
regulating feed valves, any substance in the feed 



50 POCKET EDITION OF 

nipple will then blow back into the body of the lubri- 
cator. 

With the older styles of lubricators the drain plug 
should be opened, and a small amount of water drained 
out, the regulating feed valves should then be opened 
and any sediment in the feed nipple will then be 
blown back into the body of the lubricator. At the 
first opportunity the lubricator should be thoroughly 
blown out to prevent the repetition of this trouble. 
Care should be exercised with the old styles of lubri- 
cators as the sight feed glasses are very liable to 
break. 

54. How would you clean out chokes ? 

Ans. The chokes can be cleaned by partially 
draining the water out of the reservoir, and sight feed 
glasses, the brakes should then be set and the engine 
throttle opened, the back pressure from the steam 
chest will usually blow the obstruction into the sight 
feed glass. If they cannot be cleaned in this manner 
the lubricator will have to be closed off all around, 
and the tallow pipe disconnected and a fine wire run 
through the choke. 

55. Which is the better practice, to close the feed 
valves or water valves while waiting on sidings, and 
etc.? 

Ans. It is advisable, and better practice to close 
the regulating feed valves while waiting on sidings, as 
the water valve might leak, and there would be a loss 
of oil. Closing the water valve would prevent the air 
pump from receiving any oil (providing it did not 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 5 1 

leak) and it is as necessary that it receive oil at all 
times, so closing the regulating feed valves is better 
practice. 

56. How can you tell if the equalizing tube 
becomes stopped up? 

Ans. When the equalizing tube becomes stopped 
up, the drop of oil takes a spiral motion up through 
the water, the glass does not always fill with water, 
there is sometimes a very poor, irregular feed if any 
at all, the balance being destroyed, again the glass 
has a tendency to fill up with oil, in case it feeds at 
all. When this takes place, the oil quickly disappears 
when the throttle is closed off, showing that it is not 
the choke that is stopped up. 
SECOND SERIES OF AIR BRAKE QUESTIONS. 

1. Why is the present brake called an automatic 
brake? 

Ans. The present brake is called an automatic 
brake, due to the fact that the brake is applied auto- 
matically (by the triple valve) through the medium 
of a brake pipe reduction, from any cause, such as a 
burst hose, breaking in two, or the air having been 
pulled on the rear end. 

2. What are the essential parts of the air brake, 
as applied to the locomotive? 

Ans. The essential parts of the air brake as 
applied to the locomotive, are, the air pump, or com- 
presser, the main reservoir, and its pipe connections, 
the engineer's brake valve, equalizing reservoir and its 
pipe connections, air gauge, pump governor, auxiliary 



52 POCKET EDITION OF 

reservoir, and the triple valve. The brake cylinder, 
and its pipe connections, a suitable set of levers and 
rods which in turn are fastened to brake beams, which 
hold metal shoes against the wheels when the brake 
is applied. With the E. T. equipment the distributing 
valve takes the place of the auxiliary, and triple valve 
of the D8 and G6 equipments. 

3. Name the positions of the engineer's brake 
valve. 

Ans. The positions of the engineer's brake valve 
are, full release, running lap, service, and emergency. 
With the E. T. equipment 5 or 6 there is a new posi- 
tion known as (holding position) between running 
and lap positions, as with the D8 or G6 equipments. 

4. How is the automatic brake applied and 
released? 

Ans. The automatic brake is applied by reducing 
brake pipe pressure below auxiliary reservoir pressure, 
the triple valve is forced by the auxiliary pressure to 
set position, which position causes auxiliary pressure 
to be vented to the brake cylinders applying the 
brakes. This action is entirely automatic, after the 
brake pipe reduction has been made, and the air will 
continue to flow to the brake cylinders until equaliza- 
tion takes place. 

5. Where are the different pressures stored? 
Ans. The different pressures are stored in the 

main reservoir, equalizing reservoir, or chamber D, 
brake pipe, auxiliary reservoir, straight air piping, and 
application chamber of the straight air brake valve, 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 53 

also the signal line pressure which is stored in the 
signal line piping. 

6. Where do these pressures begin and end? 

Ans. Main reservoir pressure begins at the dis- 
charge valve of all styles of pumps, and ends at the 
further walls of the main reservoir, and its pipe con- 
nections, the top of the rotary in the engineer's brake 
valve, the red hand of the air gauge, the pump gover- 
nor, and the face of all valves operating main reser- 
voir pressure, such as the straight air reducing valve, 
the signal line reducing valve, the bell ringer, air 
sanders, head light extinguisher, traction increaser, pin 
lifter, and all such devices that are operated by com- 
pressed air. In full release of the engineer's brake valve 
it ends at bridge W of the rotary and the preliminary 
port of the rotary seat. In running position it ends 
at the main reservoir side of the excess pressure valve 
of the D8, and the main reservoir side of the feed 
valve attachment in the G6 brake valves. In lap, 
service, and emergency it ends at the rotary seat. 

Equalizing reservoir, or chamber D pressure be- 
gins at the preliminary and equalizing ports, and ends 
at the further walls of the equalizing reservoir, and its 
pipe connections, the top of the equalizing piston in 
the engineer's brake valve, the pump governor, and the 
air gauge. 

Brake pipe pressure begins at bridge W in full 
release with all styles of brake valves, at the brake 
pipe side of the excess pressure valve of the D8, and 
the brake pipe side of the feed valve attachment of 



54 POCKET EDITION OF 

the G6, in running position, and ends on the under- 
neath side of the equalizing piston, the walls of the 
brake pipe, the brake pipe side of the triple piston, 
and the first closed angle-cock in the train. It also 
ends in cavity Y of the quick action triple, cavity C of 
the engineer's brak evalve, and the pump governor 
with the D8 brake valve, the conductor's valve in 
coach or way car, also the air gauge when one is in 
use. 

Auxiliary reservoir pressure begins on the 
auxiliary side of the triple piston and ends at the 
further walls of the auxiliary and its pipe connections, 
and the auxiliary side of the water pressure valve in 
the pullman and tourist cars. Straight air begins on 
the straight air side of the straight air reducing valve 
and ends on top of the application valve, in the straight 
air brake valve and its pipe connections. 

Signal line pressure begins on the signal line side 
of the signal line reducing valve, and ends in the signal 
line piping, the first closed angle-cock in the signal 
line pipe, chambers A and B in the signal valve and at 
the face of the car discharge valve in the coach. 

7. What is excess pressure and where carried? 
Ans. Excess pressure is pressure carried in the 

main reservoir over and above the brake pipe pressure. 

8. What is excess pressure for? 

Ans. Excess pressure is to insure a prompt 
release of the brakes, a rapid recharge of brakepipe 
and auxiliaries, and to operate all the appliances on 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 55 

the engine (that are operated with compressed air) 
without interfering with the brake pipe pressure. 

9. What are the functions of the triple valve ? 
Ans. The functions of the triple valve are, to 

automatically charge, the auxiliary, apply and release 
the brake. 

10. What are the functions of the pump gover- 
nor? 

Ans. The function of the pump governor is to 
automatically control the working of the pump. 

ENGINEER'S MECHANICAL EXAMINATION. 

1. What are necessary duties of the engineer 
before attaching the engine to the train? 

Ans. The duties of the engineer before attaching 
the engine to the train are as follows: He should 
arrive at the engine house in sufficient time to prepare 
his engine for the trip. ' This rule varies on the differ- 
ent divisions, and roads, but is usually one hour before 
leaving time of train. His first duty on arriving at 
the engine house is to examine the bulletin boards, for 
special instructions, relative to old and new bulletins 
issued since last trip. He should then examine the 
train board, see the number of the train, engine, time 
ordered to leave, and what fireman he is to have on 
the trip. He should then examine the work report 
book, to see what work has been reported on the 
engine. Compare time with a standard clock, or get 
the same from the train dispatcher. He should then 



56 POCKET EDITION OF 

proceed to the engine, open the channel drain cocks on 
the air pump as he passed by the engine, and after 
getting up on the engine he should notice the water 
level in the boiler, compare the gauge cocks with the 
water glass, see that there is a good circulation in the 
glass, examine the firebox, for leaks in the side, back, 
flue and crown sheet, notice the condition of the fire, 
the amount of steam on the boiler. He should then 
fill the lubricator, and start the air pump feed work- 
ing, after oiling the air end of the pump he should 
start the same slowly allowing the condensation to be 
worked out, and a cushion of from 30 to 40 pounds 
of air to be formed before timing the pump down to 
a regular stroke. While the air pump is getting the 
pressure he should try both injectors, see that they 
are in working order. He should then note that the 
air pump has the pressure pumped up, that the 
governor and feed valve are properly adjusted, main- 
taining and separating their pressures. He should 
then with a lighted torch and hammer make a careful 
inspection of the engine in regards to the condition of 
the machinery, and air brake equipment (the subject 
of engine inspection will be taken up later). After 
satisfying himself that the engine is in condition to 
make a trip, he should fill and adjust grease cups on 
rods, oil all parts of the engine that require lubrication, 
giving special attention to all new work, see that it is 
properly connected up, the work done in a workman 
like manner and that all tools have been removed by 
the machinists. He should then make his round house 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 57 

tests of air sanders, bell ringer, and air brake on engine 
and tender. He should know that the sand box con- 
tains sand and that the sanders work, sand from both 
pipes should strike the rail at the same time. The 
bell ringer should be tried to ascertain that it will 
operate with the air. A full reduction of 25 pounds 
should then be made with the engineer's brake valve 
and the following things noticed, whether there is a 
cut rotary valve or seat, leaky gasket 32 or any one 
of the several defects that will destroy excess and 
cause the brakes to release, or defects of the feed 
valve that will destroy excess he should notice the 
piston travel on engine and tender, see that it is prop- 
erly adjusted, also know that the brakes remain 
applied the required length of time. He should then 
blow out the air signal and brake pipe hose, noticing 
that the air signal whistle responds to the reduction. 
If the engine is equiped with steam heat and dynamo 
lines he should know that their respective reducing 
valves are in working order and (if in cold or freezing 
weather) he should have a good circulation of steam 
through them. 

He should then satisfy himself that the fireman 
has done his work in regards to tools and supplies 
(classification, flagging and markers to come under 
the heading of tools). That he has all the necessary 
firing tools, scoop, broom, coal pick, clinker hook, 
slash bar, and plugging bar. That the engine is sup- 
plied with at least two extra water glasses and head- 



58 POCKET EDITION OF 

light chimneys. Also a set of suitable blocks to cope 
with a possible breakdown. 

He is then ready to get out of the house, and 
should ring the bell as a signal for the table. After 
receiving a signal to back out and satisfying himself 
that the table is properly lined up, the doors opened, 
and the jack raised, he should place the reverse lever 
in the full back motion and open the cylinder cocks, 
giving the engine steam very gradually, allowing the 
condension to be worked out, he should be very care- 
ful that no one is about the engine in a position where 
they could be hurt. After backing off the table he 
should proceed to the water tank or pen stock, and 
take a full tank of water, he should also take coal if 
necessary, have the ash pan cleaned by the man 
employed for that purpose, being certain that he does 
the work as it should be done. He should then back 
up to the place where the blow off cock is used and 
try the blow off cock according to the condition of the 
water in the boiler. When blowing off the boiler the 
best results are obtained by opening and closing the 
valve at intervals of from 5 to 10 seconds. This method 
removes more mud than by simply opening the valve 
and allowing it to remain open. This is considered the 
best method, by most all the leading authority. The 
injector should not be used while blowing off the 
boiler. He is now ready to proceed to the terminal and 
get his train. 

2. Trace the steam from boiler to atmosphere, 
and explain how it transmits power to the locomotive. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 59 

Ans. The steam, which is generated in the boiler, 
transmits its power to the locomotive in the following 
manner. .The steam is generated somewhere nearest 
the highly heated surface of the boiler and rises 
through the water in the form of a bubble, on reaching 
the surface of the water the bubble bursts, or explodes 
into the gas, called steam. The steam now collects 
in the highest point of the boiler (the dome), sur- 
rounding the throttle valve. 

It now upon opening the throttle valve, passes 
into the throttle box, the stand pipe, the dry pipe, and 
then to the steam pipes in the smoke box, to the steam 
supply ports or induction ports to the steam chest and 
surrounds the valve, regardless of the position in which 
the engine is standing (when properly connected up, 
with the reverse lever in full gear), it finds one of the 
admission ports open to the cylinder, it then passes 
through the open port to the cylinder and exerts its 
expansive force on the piston. This causes the piston 
to move away from the head at which the steam was 
admitted. This action of power is then transmitted 
to the engine in the following manner : From the 
piston to the piston rod, piston rod to cross-head, 
cross-head to main rod, main rod to main pin, main pin 
to the main wheel or driver, wheel to the rail, the 
wheel is 'caused to move the power of the steam in the 
cylinder having transmitted itself to the machine, or 
engine, causing it to do work. The work done will be 
equal to the expansive force of the confined steam in 
the cylinders. The movement of the wheel in turn 



60 POCKET EDITION OF 

causes the eccentric to transmit motion to the blade, 
blade to link, from link to link block, from link block 
to rocker arm, from rocker arm to valve stem, from 
valve stem to valve, and this action of the valve causes 
the steam to be cut off from the cylinder at which- 
ever port it was admitted, and as the valve continues 
its travel ahead, or back, the exhaust arch of the valve 
registers with the edge of the admission port, and the 
steam from the cylinder is released, or exhausted, in 
the following manner : it passes out through the same 
port at which it entered the cylinder, out through the 
exhaust arch of the valve, through the exhaust cavity 
in the cylinder saddle, nozzle stand and tip, petticoat 
pipe and sleeve, and stack to the atmosphere. At the 
same time the valve was opening the steam port to 
release it was also opening the steam port on the 
opposite end of the cylinder to admission. 

The fact that a locomotive consists of two engines 
whose valve events are the same, with the exception 
that they are placed at different quarters, or angles, 
and consequently take place at different intervals 
accounts for the fact that the engine is kept in motion 
so long as steam from the boiler is supplied to the 
cylinders. 

3. What precaution should be taken if any work 
or repairs have been made such as valves faced, 
brasses filed, etc.? 

Ans. When such work as valves faced, or brasses 
filed, and etc., the engineer, should see that all work 
has been done in an intelligent and workmanlike man- 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 6l 

tier, see that all parts are properly connected up, that 
all tools have been removed by the machinist, see that 
the parts are in a proper condition to receive a lubri- 
cant and that they are properly lubricated. These 
parts should receive his special attention at every 
opportunity until satisfied that they are running all 
right, and that the work done is producing the desired 
results wanted when reported. 

4. When train is ready, how should engine be 
started, and what should be observed? If necessary 
to take the slack of train, how should it be done? 

Ans. After the engine has been attached to the 
train, the air having been pumped up and a terminal 
test of brakes made, and you have been informed by 
the conductor, and train men the condition and opera- 
tion of the same, also being supplied with the proper 
information relative to the make up of the train, and 
having been provided with the orders and after reading 
the same, being certain that you fully understand the 
same, would then compare time with the men in the 
crew. Upon signal from the conductor, proceed, pro- 
viding that conditions relative to the movement did 
not interfere with any superior train. Would first 
hearing the bell ringing, open the cylinder cocks, place 
the reverse lever in the direction wished to go, would 
then on a signal from the conductor, and switch ten- 
der, open the throttle gradually, starting one car at a 
time, in the train until the engine and train is in 
motion. As soon as the full train is in motion the 
throttle opening should be increased, and the engine 



62 POCKET EDITION OF 

hooked up to a point where it can do its work most 
economically, all the while keeping a close watch for 
signals from the train crew. The engine should be 
hooked up to a point (as the train gains in speed), 
where it can do its work, bearing in mind that the 
weather, train, time to be made, and physical charac- 
teristics of the road must be taken into consideration 
from the economical standpoint, as there is no econ- 
omy in doing work to a disadvantage to the company. 

In case it becomes necessary to take the slack of 
the train it should be done very carefully, as in taking 
the slack great damage is very often done to draw- 
bars, and draft rigging, bunch the slack of the entire 
train and wait until satisfied that the slack is all run 
out before reversing the engine? In case it becomes 
necessary to take the slack the second time it should 
be done in like manner. 

5. How should the water be supplied to the 
boiler? 

Ans. The successful handling of the water (or 
proper pumping), is one of the largest factors in the 
successful handling of the engine from any standpoint, 
especially an economical one. Proper pumping has a 
great bearing on the lubrication of an engine, proper 
lubrication has a great bearing on coal consumption, 
improper pumping destroyes the lubrication, causes 
valves and seats to become cut, causes unnecessary 
wear on all parts of the valve gear, is very liable to 
knock out cylinder heads, spring pistons, rupture 
cylinder and piston rod packing. Bad blows and steam 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 63 

leaks are the results, a generel decrease in the efficiency 
of the engine, all due to an improper manner of sup- 
plying the water to the boiler. 

The water to the boiler should not be supplied to 
exceed evaporation. When starting from the terminal 
the boiler should contain as much water as it will 
safely carry, in order to enable the train to be gotten 
under way and the engine well hooked up before the 
injector is put to work. On through passenger or 
freight runs the water should be carried as near as 
possible the same level all the time. Usually two 
gauges, or one-half a glass is considered the proper 
amount. On local passenger or way freight runs a 
little water should be lost between stations so as to 
pump the boiler while standing at the station, or while 
doing switching if on a way freight job. The method 
will be found to help in preventing the engine from 
blowing off, as well as enabling the fireman to carry a 
heavier fire while switching is being done. On switch 
engines the water should be supplied to the boiler, 
when the strain on the same is the least, being cer- 
tain to have a safe amount in the boiler when going 
into cinder pits or up into coal chutes to protect the 
crown sheet. 

6. After engine has been started, how can it be 
run most economically? 

Ans. After engine has been started it can be 
run most economically by hooking up the reverse 
lever to as short a point of cut off as possible where 
the engine can do its work bearing in mind that the 



64 POCKET EDITION OF 

train, time to be made, and weather conditions must 
be taken into consideration. Proper pumping and 
proper firing, and according to the engineer the 
proper amount of oil supplied to the valves and cylin- 
ders will produce the most economical results. On 
some of the large power of today the better results 
are obtained by working the lever a notch or two 
lower in the quadrant, and throttle the engine, this 
is of course left to the good judgment of the engineer, 
as there is no set rule as to how the lever and throttle 
should be handled. 

7. In case you broke down between stations, 
what would you do? 

Ans. In case of a breakdown between stations 
the engineer should see that his train is protected by 
flag (in both directions if necessary), and after making 
an inspection of the engine, should arrange to notify 
the train dispatcher as to the nature of the break 
down and the length of time necessary to make tem- 
porary repairs, so as to get the train on a side track 
where the -necessary repairs to bring the train to the 
terminal can be made. 

8. Name the different draft appliances in the 
front end, and explain how you would adjust them to 
regulate the burning of the fire? 

Ans. The different draft appliances, are the 
diaphram, petticoat pipe, sleeve, and nozzle. The 
diaphram regulates the burning of the fire from front 
to back end of the box. Raising the diaphram causes 
the fire to burn more in the back end of the box. By 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 65 

reason of increasing the draft through the top flues, 
towering the diaphram increases the burning of the 
fire in the front end of the box. By reason of the 
increased draft through the bottom flues, raising the 
petticoat pipe, and lowering the sleeve sharpens the 
draft all over the fire. Lowering the petticoat pipe and 
raising the sleeve softens the draft all over the fire. 
Decreasing the diameter of the nozzle sharpens the 
draft, increasing the size of the nozzle (or diameter), 
softens the draft. Lowering the sleeve helps to 
increase top flue draft. Raising the petticoat pipe helps 
to increase bottom flue draft. The adjustment of the 
diaphram is made by means of holes in the plate, 
while the petticoat pipe and sleeve are moved up and 
down in a slotted stand. The diameter of the nozzle is 
changed, either by bushing, or some times by putting 
a bridge, or split in it. To increase the diameter the 
nozzle is usually changed, or bored to the desired size. 

9. (a) What is the difference between priming, 
and foaming of water in the boiler? (b) What would 
you do in case of foaming? 

Ans. Priming of water in the boiler is caused by 
contracted steam space there being not enough room 
for the steam due to over pumping, or filling the boiler 
too full of water. They sometimes prime when the 
throttle is opened suddenly, the water being raised in 
a body, and carried over into the valves and cylinders. 
Foaming is caused by some foreign substance in the 
water, such as vegetable, or animal oil, soap, alkali, or 
certain kinds of boiler compound. The water assumes 



66 POCKET EDITION OF 

the form of a suds, when an engine foams, and is far 
more dangerous than priming as the water level 
becomes deceptive. Priming or foaming have practi- 
cally the same effect on the lubrication, it being 
washed away in either case. The engine not only loses 
its power, but the greatest damage is done to valves 
and seats, cylinders and piston rod packing. They be- 
come dry and cut (blows are the result). 

There is also great danger of blowing out cylinder 
heads, springing the piston, buckling the rods and the 
heavy strain placed on the valve gear parts to move 
the dry valve is very liable to break the eccentric 
straps, blades, or in many cases has caused the eccen- 
tric to slip on the journal. 

The greatest danger of foaming is the liability 
of burning the crown sheet as the water level is very 
deceiving, the water glass should not be depended on 
in cases of foaming but the water level should be 
ascertained by the gauge cocks. 

When an engine is foaming the cylinder cocks 
should be opened, the throttle eased off, and the 
reverse lever dropped lower in the quadrant, the blow 
off cock should then be opened if the water level will 
permit, and some of the water blowed out. If the 
engine is equipped with a surface blow off cock it 
should be used in cases of foaming, as the substance 
that is causing the trouble is usually on top of the 
water. This method should be continued until the 
foaming stops. When an engine is priming the water 
is clean and all that is necessary to stop it is to 



IOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 6j 

reduce the water level with the blow off cock. The 
engine should of course be handled the same so far 
as the throttle and reverse lever is concerned. 

In extreme cases it may be necessary to fill the 
boiler full of water and after getting a full head of 
steam the blow off on the dome opened, this will skim 
the substance off the water that is causing the trouble. 

In case the engine is not equipped with a blow off 
cock and it becomes absolutel ynecessary to blow off 
the boiler, it can be done in the following manner : 
Take off the front cylinder head, and shift the valve 
so the front admission port is opened, block the 
wheels, and set the brake, open the throttle valve and 
the impurities can then be blowed out. If the engine 
is equipped with a relief valve in the front of the steam 
chest, the relief valve can be taken out instead of 
taking off the head. This method will not be resorted 
to only in extreme cases. A dirty boiler is not sufficient 
cause for an engine setting out a train. 

Good judgment should be exercised in cases of 
either foaming or priming as aside from the danger 
of burning the engine. Great damage to all parts of the 
engine can be done if not properly handled. The 
engineer should be certain as to the water level before 
attempting to rid the boiler of the impurities, that are 
causing the trouble. He should if possible get his 
train in the clear, and the engine to a pen stock or 
water tank, before blowing off the boiler. If the 
trouble was caused by oil in the tank, the oil can be 
gotten out by putting on the heaters, and running the 



68 POCKET EDITION OF 

tank over the heaters will raise the oil and the water 
will carry it away. 

10. What is the danger when water in the boiler 
foams badly? 

Ans. The greatest danger lies in the fact that 
the boiler is liable to become burned, as the water 
level is very deceptive. There is really no danger of 
burning the engine while it is foaming, but in case 
the water settles, it is very liable to fall below the 
crown sheet. The sheets becoming bare, and exposed to 
the firebox heat will soon become over heated and an 
explosion would be the result. The water glass should 
never be depended upon when an engine is foaming. 
Both injectors should be put to work and if the water 
level should fall below the bottom gauge cock the 
fire should be dumped to protect the firebox sheets. 

ii. (a) Supposing a washout plug blew out or a 
blow off cock broke, off or would not close, what 
would you do? 

Ans. If a washout plug blew out or a blow off 
cock broke off, the fire should be dumped at once to 
protect the firebox sheets. In case it was necessary to 
refill the boiler the hole could be plugged with another 
plug or a piece of soft pine, in case it was the blow 
off cock it might be repaired and replaced, if not it too 
could be plugged with a piece of soft pine. There are 
several ways of making the plug, some of which are as 
follows: Make a plug that will just fit the hole, split 
the end and insert a hard wood wedge, drive the plug 
in the hole wedge end first. When the wedge strikes 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 69 

the inside sheets it will spread the plug and wedge 
it solidly in the hole. The steam will cause it to swell, 
and there is very little danger of blowing out. Another 
way is to make a sectional plug and insert the sections. 
When the pressure is on the plug it becomes very tight 
due to the way it is made and the wood swelling 
causes it to become very tight, with little danger of 
it blowing out. After the hole has been plugged the 
boiler can be refilled either by a hand pump or pres- 
sure, or if necessary while the engine is being towed 
(this subject will be taken up later). 

If the blow off cock would not close it can some 
times be made to by first screwing in the pig tail. This 
action forces the boiler valve from its seat and the 
scale or whatever was keeping it open will in some 
cases be blown out. In case it will not close by this 
method the pig tail should be screwed out and the 
intermediate valve will be forced to its seat, thus 
preventing the loss of the water. In case it cannot be 
closed by these methods the fire should be dumped and 
after the boiler was empty, the blow off cock can be 
taken off and the cause for its failure removed. The 
blow off cock can then be replaced and preparation 
made to refill the boiler. 

(b) Can a boiler be refilled while an engine is 
being towed? If so, how? 

Ans. A boiler can be refilled while being towed 
in the following manner : Close all inward opening 
valves on the boiler such as, cylinder cocks, relief 
valves, plug or block by pass valves, blow off cock 



70 POCKET EDITION OF 

whistle, shut off the lubricator, air pump, blower, and 
screw down the heater plugs on both injectors, open 
injector throttles, put the reverse lever in the motion 
engine is being towed, and open the main throttle. 
The engine should be towed sufficiently fast to create 
a vacuum in the boiler (this depends on how well the 
air is excluded at all openings). As soon as this is 
accomplished, the atmospheric pressure on the water 
in the tank will force the water up through the 
injectors into the boiler. The boiler can be filled in 
this manner while being towed about two miles. 
When sufficient water is obtained to re-fire up, all that 
is necessary to do is to close the main throttle, and 
the action of the syphon is destroyed, the engine can 
then be towed to a place where it will be out of the 
way until steam is raised. Care should be exercised, 
and be certain that the boiler contains enough water 
to generate steam to work the injectors. 

12. Name the different parts of the engine that 
operate, and control, the valve motion. 

Ans. The parts of the valve motion that operate 
the valve are the eccentric, the eccentric strap, eccen- 
tric blade, link, link block, top and bottom rocker 
arm, valve stem, valve rod and valve. The parts that 
control are the reverse lever, quadrant, reach rod, 
reversing arm, tumbling shaft and its arms, link 
hanger, link lifter, and link. 

13. What attention should be given to boiler 
attachments, such as gauge cocks, water glass cocks, 
etc.? 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING fl 

Ans. The engineer should give boiler attach- 
ments such as gauge cocks, and water glass cocks, the 
following attention : They should be well packed, free 
from corrosion, and at all times have a good circulation. 
When found in any other condition than this they 
should be reported, or the work done by the engineer 
(if the custom). 

14. What work should you do about the engine? 
Ans. Different roads have different rules, but 

usually the engineer is supposed to do such work as 
follows : Pack all cocks in the cab, put in water glasses 
lubricator glasses, key up rods, set up wedges, tighten 
all bolts and nuts that he can reach, keep all boxes, 
and cellars well packed, keep all oil holes open, take 
care of the headlight, see that the engine receives the 
proper lubrication in all parts, adjust piston travel on 
engine and tender brakes, clean feed valve, governors, 
make a careful and thorough inspection of the engine 
and report all necessary work in an intelligent manner. 

15. How would you proceed to set up wedges; 
and how would you know if one was stuck; and in 
what manner would you proceed to pull it down? 

Ans. When necessary to set up wedges, it should 
be done in the following manner : Place the engine on 
a straight, and level piece of track, place the right 
engine on the top forward eight (the left engine will 
then be on the top back eight), the reverse lever should 
then be placed in the full forward motion, cut out the 
driver brake, and set the tank brake, block engine 



72 POCKET EDITION OF 

truck, and tank truck wheels, then give the engine a 
little steam. 

With the engine standing in this position both 
engines will be pulling the boxes up against the shoe 
or dead wedge. Steam being behind the pistons will 
hold the box up against the shoe. The wedges can 
now be set up all around without moving the engine. 
Slack up on the wedge bolt, and pry up on the wedge, 
until it takes up all the lost motion. The main wedges 
of a ten wheel engine should be pulled down about 
1-16 of an inch. The front and back wedges should be 
set up in the same manner, and pulled down about 1-8 
of an inch. 

When setting up any one wedge, the engine can 
be placed on the top quarter, place the reverse lever 
so as to get steam behind the piston and set up the 
wedge as described in the preceding paragraph. 

A stuck wedge is indicated by the manner in 
which the engine rides. The engine does not get the 
elasticity of its springs and rides with a heavy thud. 
The box will also run hot as a rule, as the bearing on 
the brass is changed. In reality the wedge is not stuck 
as there should not, and is not any motion, or move- 
ment of the wedge when the bolts are not broke, and 
the wedge properly set up, but the box should have a 
free movement (up and down) between the wedge and 
the shoe. If due to a broken bolt or improperly set up 
wedge the box sticks, and does not have this free 
movement we term it a stuck wedge, when in reality it 
is a stuck box instead of the wedge. We can now 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 73 

see why the engine rides hard, as well as being able to 
locate the wedge at fault by reason of no movement 
of the box when the engine is in motion. 

When this condition exists the wedge can usually 
be pulled down with the wedge bolts, slack off on the 
lock nut, and screw the bolts up into the wedge, the 
head of the bolt being under the pedestal will pull the 
wedge down. It should then be set up in its proper 
position, and well oiled. . 

In case the wedge cannot be pulled down by this 
method, running the driver, with the stuck wedge 
over a nut on the rail will some times bring it down, 
if not place a nut on top of the wedge underneath the 
top rail of the frame, and run the driver over a nut 
placed on the rail. If this fails to bring it down, as a 
last resort the nut should be slacked off on the pedestal 
bolt, or binder bolt. Now run the engine over a nut 
placed on the rail and the wedge will surely come 
down. After getting the wedge down it should be 
properly set up and well oiled. 

The usual causes for stuck wedges are improper 
lubrication, causing them to become dry and cut, 
broken bolts, allowing the wedge to be pulled up with 
the box when the engine is running over rough track, 
and the expansion in a hot driving box will cause the 
wedge to become stuck. The wedge is not only the 
life of the valve motion, making it possible to keep the 
engine square, or get the valve events in perfect 
unison, but it is also the foundation or origin of most 
all lost motion and pounds in a locomotive. 



74 POCKET EDITION OF 

The wedge has much to do with the riding quali- 
ties of the engine, as on the wedge falls most of the 
equal or unequal distribution of spring carriage. In 
order to maintain all these qualities in the wedge, they 
should never be allowed to run dry or fail to be set 
up when needed as pounds soon wear the taper off 
and then there is no remedy but drop the wedge and 
have it planed off to its proper taper. 

1 6. What position should you place engine to 
properly key up main rod brasses? 

Ans. The proper position to place the engine to 
key up the forward end of the main rod brass is the 
bottom quarter. With the engine in this position the 
brass is being keyed to the largest part of the pin, 
and if free or moves, % on this point it will move on all 
others. In this position the live brass is being keyed 
to the pin instead of keying against the weight of the 
rod. It is also easier to get at the set screws, on any 
style of an engine especially a four bar guide engine. 

To key the- back end of the main rod the engine 
should be placed on the top forward eight, or the 
lower back eight as in this position the live brass is 
being keyed to the largest point on the pin as well 
as keying with the weight of the rod on the dead 
brass. Placing an engine in this position enables one 
to key the brass to the pin instead of keying the pin 
to the brass, as well as the assurance that if the brass 
is free at this point it be free on all other points, and 
in all probabilities will run without heating. 

17. How would you proceed to key up side rods 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 75 

On an eight and ten wheel engine? Do you fully 
understand the necessity of keeping brasses keyed up 
properly? Explain. 

Ans. When keying up brasses on an eight or ten 
wheel engine, the engine should be placed on the dead 
center, on the side to be keyed. After the wedges had 
been set up the side rods should be keyed as follows : 
Slack off on all keys, key the front end first, and the 
back end last, try the engine on the opposite dead cen- 
ters, if the brasses are free on the center they will pass 
all other points as the center is the dead and rigid 
point of an engine. 

On a ten wheel engine the engine should also be 
placed on the dead center on the side to be keyed, 
after the wedges have been set up slack off on all keys, 
key the middle connection first dividing the difference 
with the keys or in other words drive both keys, alike, 
key the brass snug to the pin, or key the brass so that 
there is a little lateral motion in the brass, if there is a 
key in the front and back key the front first and 
divide the difference on the back. 

It is absolutely necessary to keep rods keyed 
properly as they not only cause a very disagreeable 
pound, but are very liable to knock out a cylinder 
head, break brasses, rods and pins, also cause the bolts 
and nuts to become loose, is very liable to break the 
frame, causes the pins to run hot and results in a 
general decreased efficiency of the locomotive. 

1 8. How often does the ordinary locomotive 



j6 POCKET EDITION OF 

exhaust steam during a revolution of the driving 
wheels, and at what point does the exhaust take place ? 

Ans. The ordinary locomotive exhausts steam 
four times during the revolution of the driving wheel, 
and the exhaust takes place as follows. The position 
of the pin when the exhaust takes place, depends on 
the construction of the valve and the position in which 
the lever is hooked, usually taking place 1-16 past 
the eight, or 1-16 before the engine reaches the center. 
A good way to follow these exhausts separately in 
order to locate valve blows is to watch the cross head 
on the right engine. When the cross head is at the 
back end of the guides, the first exhaust or No. 1 takes 
place, coming from the front head on the right side. 
When the cross head reaches the center of the guides 
(on its return), No. 2 takes place from the back head 
of the left side. When the cross head reaches the for- 
ward end of the guides No. 3 takes place from the back 
head of the right side. When the cross head reaches the 
center of the guides on its return, No. 4 takes place 
from the forward head of the left side. By watching 
an engine when working slowly often this method will 
aid the engineer in locating valve defects and blows, 
and he can then in turn make out an intelligent work 
report. 

19. Why is it necessary to place engine on dead 
center while keying up side rods? 

Ans. It is necessary to place the engine on dead 
center when keying up side rods, as this is the dead 
and rigid point and if they will pass all right on this 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 77 

point they will pass on all other. If keyed on any other 
point there is a liability of keying the engine out of 
tram as well as causing the brasses to cramp or bind 
on the pin, which would be very liable to do damage 
to rods or pins. 

20. What is meant by an engine out of tram? 
Ans. An engine is said to be out of tram when 

the distance from one wheel center to the next is 
different on the corresponding wheels on the opposite 
side. An engine is said to be out of quarter when the 
distance in the pin centers on one side is different on 
the opposite side. Engines are usually designed out of 
"quarter (when so found), and keyed out of tram. 

21. Why should all joints in the smoke arch be 
kept tight? 

Ans. The joints of the smoke arch should be 
kept tight as the leaks furnish the air to fill the vacuum 
created by the exhaust steam, instead, of it being sup- 
plied through the grates, hence a poor steaming 
engine. The leaks also cause the cinders to burn, 
burning out the netting, the front end becomes red hot 
and is warped out of shape, thus destroying the front 
end. The air supplied in this manner also causes the 
expansion and contraction to be un-uniform, and the 
flues leak in the front end as a result. 

22. How would you manage with a burned or 
broken grate? How if entirely gone with a deep ash 
pan? 

Ans. With a badly burned, or broken grate 
would proceed as follows : Would try to get into a 



78 POCKET EDITION OF 

side track if possible before making any repairs. The 
supposition is that the engine was not steaming, and 
that the fire in the pan would do furthur damage, such 
as burn out the rest of the grates, or the grate shakers, 
or possibly burn off the ash pan. The fire dropping 
out of the pan would be liable to set fire to bridges, 
and culverts. In this case it would not be advisable to 
try to get into a side track, but would clean out the 
ash pan and get what fire possible of the burned or 
broken section and cover the space with angle bars, 
fish plates, clinkers, or anything that would fill in the 
hole, would then spread the fire over the repaired sec- 
tion and proceed. Would exercise care to see that the 
ash pan was not filling up with fire, or that none was 
falling out to set fire to anything along the right of 
way and avoid shaking the grates of burnt section. 
With a deep ash pan would try to clear the main 
track, disconnect, and be # prepared to be towed in as it 
is impossible to get sufficient steam to be safe in try- 
ing to get in with the light engine. 

In a very urgent case it might be possible to 
knock out the fire and build up on brick, with angle 
bars so as to get in with the light engine but this is 
not considered advisable only in the most urgent 
cases. This would only apply in a case where it was 
impossible to get any one to help you in. 

23. If an engine was throwing fire badly, to what 
would you attribute the cause? What would you do 
to prevent it? 

Ans. If an engine was throwing fire it might be 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 79 

caused by too light a fire consistent with the work the 
engine had to do, or the way the engine was being 
worked, or it might be caused by a hole in the netting, 
the man hole in the netting open or, an engine drafted 
too severe, such as a small nozzle or a badly gummed up 
nozzle, slipping the engine or working the engine 
unusually hard. The cause should be ascertained, and 
repaired if possible. If impossible to make the repairs 
the train despatcher should be notified (if in dry 
weather), and be governed by his instructions, as 
to future actions. On reaching the terminal the con- 
dition of the engine should be reported. 

24. What should be done with a badly leaking 
or burst flue? 

Ans. If a flue was leaking bad enough to inter- 
fere with the steaming of the engine, would plug it in 
the firebox end, with a plug provided for that purpose. 
If there was no plug, or plugging bar, would plug it 
with a wooden plug, nail the plug to a fence board and 
drive it in, or if possible get a limb of a tree and use 
it as a plug. If the flue was burst would plug it in 
both ends if possible, but as a rule when a flue bursts 
the engine dies owing to the steam and water putting 
the fire out. In this case it would be necessary to get 
ready to be towed in. If in cold or freezing weather 
all parts that contain wat^.r should be drained, being 
careful not to drain the boiler and tank near a switch 
as the water would cause it to be frozen up. 

25. Suppose you shut off, and the water in the 
water glass dropped out of sight, what would you do? 



80 POCKET EDITION OF 

Ans. If after closing the throttle, the water 
dropped out of sight, would open it again, and see if 
the water could be raised, would try the gauge cocks, 
and if the bottom cock showed water would put the 
injector to work. If it did not show water would 
protect the fire box by dumping the fire. 

If the water could be raised by opening the 
throttle would consider it safe to put the injector to 
work. If possible would leave the throttle open with 
the brakes applied until certain the boiler contained 
a safe water level. 

26. (a) What would you do in case of a throttle 
disconnected closed? (b) Open? 

Ans. In case of a disconnected throttle, would be 
governed by conditions. If it was disconnected closed, 
and the occasion demanded it, would proceed as fol- 
lows : Would fill the boiler full of water, blow off the 
steam, and knock out the fire (would keep the injector 
working as long as possible), would then take up the 
dome cover, and connect the throttle up again, replace 
the dome cover, fire up the engine, and after getting a 
full head of steam, would proceed. In case this was 
not necessary or advisable, would disconnect and get 
ready to be towed in. The valves should be shifted 
so the cylinders can get the oil from the lubricator. If 
the cylinders are large it is not advisable to depend 
on the lubricator, but the indicator plugs should be 
removed and oil introduced through them to the 
cylinders. 

In case the -throttle was disconnected open, would 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 8l 

proceed as follows : If it were possible to handle the 
lever, and the engine safely with a full head of steam, 
would then take the full train. If it were not possible 
to handle the engine with a full head of steam, would 
reduce the pressure, with the pops, or safety valves, 
until the engine could be safely handled, would then 
take what the engine could handle. Before moving 
the engine would notify all men in the crew as to the 
condition of the engine, and would instruct them as 
to their duty in case for any reason the brakes failed. 
When taking coal or water would hold on to as many 
cars as I considered necessary to hold the engine. The 
train can and has been taken over the road with a 
throttle disconnected open but it requires good judg- 
ment, and care as this is a very dangerous condition. 
On reaching the terminal the engine should not be 
left until a competent man has been informed of the 
conditions, and he takes charge of the engine. In case 
the engine should slip, it would be necessary to set 
the brake to stop it hooking the engine up will some 
times stop an engine from slipping. 

27. If an engine is to be towed in dead, with 
main rods up, how and what would you disconnect? 

Ans. An engine being towed dead, with main 
rods up should be disconnected as follows : If the 
relief valves were in the front of the steam chest, 
would disconnect the valve stems and block the valves 
back, so that the back admission port to the cylinder 
was open to the exhaust, thus providing relief for the 
back end of the cylinder through the stack, and 



82 POCKET EDITION OF 

through the relief valve for the front end. If the relief 
valves were in the back would block the valves in the 
opposite end of the steam chest. The indicate plugs 
should be removed, and the cylinder oiled through 
them. If it were impossible to remove them the front 
head should be wedged open, and the cylinders oiled 
through the open head. On an engine with piston 
valves, and having the independent relief valve, or the 
combined bypass, and relief valves, would turn the 
relief valves up side down, thus insuring the valve 
being held from its seat by its own weight, would 
arrange to lubricate the cylinders as previously stated. 
On some roads it is not considered advisable to tow 
an engine any great distance with the rods up as the 
piston dragging on the bottom of the cylinder is very 
liable to cut the cylinder, so if the engine was to be 
towed any great distance it would be advisable to take 
the rods down, and block the cross head in the guides, 
disconnect and clamp valves centrally on their seats. 

28. Describe the piston valve and state how it 
differs from the ordinary slide valve. Do all piston 
valves work the same? Explain. 

Ans. The piston valve is a spool shaped valve, 
and differs from the slide valve in points of construc- 
tion only. The functions of the valve are the same as 
the slide valve. The piston valve (as the name 
implies) consists of two pistons, joined, or held 
together by a hollow stem, and as the valve is per- 
fectly round it is operated in a bushing. The valve 
is provided with rings of the packing ring variety. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 83 

These rings are from 1-2 to 2 inches in width, from one 
to three in number, placed on each end of the valve, in 
slots or grooves and held in place by a pin called a 
dowel pin. The perfect balancing feature of the valve 
depends on the width and number of these rings, as 
well as the rings serving for the admission and exhaust 
edges of the valve. All piston valves do not work the 
same as some are inside admission, outside exhaust, 
while others are outside admission, and inside exhaust. 
The piston valve has come to be recognized as the 
leading valve on account of its almost perfect balanc- 
ing feature, and the ease with which it is operated. The 
valve also shows a marked saving in lubricating oils, 
and is considered to be equally as tight and free from 
steam leaks as the slide valve. The cost of mainte- 
nance is much less, as all that is necessary to do in case 
of blows is to renew the rings. 

29. What is a by-pass valve, and what are its 
uses? 

Ans. A by-pass valve is a form of compression 
valve used in connection with a piston valve engine. 
There are many kinds and makes but the principle of 
operation is the same with most all types. The by- 
pass valve consists of a steel valve in a brass cage, 
placed on the steam chest and connected by steam 
passages to the live steam cavity, and the admission 
port. When the engine is working steam the by-pass 
valves are held to their seats by boiler pressure. Dur- 
ing the event in the stroke of the piston known as com- 
pression, they are supposed to perform their work. 



84 POCKET EDITION OF 

When compression exceeds steam chest pressure the 
by-pass is raised or pushed from its seat and the excess 
compression is allowed to pass into the live steam 
cavity of the valve. The amount of compression neces- 
sary to bring about this action depends on the exposed 
area of the by-pass valve, in some instances, or in 
some valve sets, it has been shown that the perform- 
ance of the engine is greatly benefited by their use, 
while in others, there does not appear to be any 
noticeable results obtained from their use. Slide valve 
engines are not equiped with these valves, although 
they also have the event in the stroke known as com- 
pression, but the valve, by reason of its construction 
is able to raise off its seat, and relieves itself of the 
compression by so doing. The most objectionable 
feature in the use of these valves is that they are very 
liable to become cut and cause a very bad blow, which 
decreases the power of the engine, and in many cases 
has proven a very hard blow to locate and remedy. 

30. If a by-pass valve was broken how would 
you test for it? 

Ans. The indications of a broken or badly blow- 
ing by-pass valve are much the same as a valve blow. 
On a standing test a heavy blow is heard at the stack, 
and steam shows at the cylinder cock, on the end with 
the defective valve. With a running test, steam is 
admitted too early, too long, is not cut off and a heavy 
blow is heard all the while that end is open to the 
exhaust. 

A running test will sometimes locate th« trouble, 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 85 

yet there is always a possibility of the blow coming 
from a broken admission ring, the indications being the 
same. The running test shows three normal, and one 
heavy exhaust. The exhaust takes place at the right 
time in the stroke, but is a very heavy exhaust, fol- 
lowed by a blow. The best method to decide whether 
it is the by-pass, or admission ring is by the following 
test : Place the engine on the quarter, on the side to be 
tested, hook the reverse lever in the center, or plumb 
the rocker arm, set the brake, or block the wheels and 
give the engine steam, open the cylinder cocks. If a 
blow is heard at the stack, and steam shows at the 
cylinder cock on either end of the cylinder would con- 
clude that the defective valve was on that end. In 
order to prove that the blow was not from a broken 
admission ring, instead of the by-pass would move the 
reverse lever, so as to cause the exhaust ring to be on 
the admission bridge. If the ■ 'ow still continued at the 
stack, and cylinder cock would know that it was a 
broken by-pass valve. If the blow stopped after the 
valve had been moved, and the exhaust ring placed on 
the admission bridge would know that it was a broken 
admission ring. In case the defect was not found on 
the side tested would use the same test on the other 
side. 

This method closely followed will usually locate 
the trouble, so that an intelligent work report can be 
made out. 

31. (a) What is a balanced slide valve? (b) How 



86 POCKET EDITION OF 

is it balanced and why? (c) What is the hole drilled 
in the top of the valve for? 

Ans. A balanced slide valve is a valve, from the 
top of which a certain amount of steam has been 
excluded, thus allowing a free movement of the valve 
over its seat, by reason of the fact that it has not got 
the boiler pressure holding it to its seat. There are 
many styles of balanced slide valves, but the balancing 
feature is much the same in all of them. It consists 
of strips or rings, held in place by grooves, or a cone 
on top of the valve and preventing steam from reach- 
ing the top of the valve by reason of a balance plate, 
against which these strips or rings form a steam-tight 
joint. The balancing plate is fastened to the steam 
chest cover, and when it in turn is fastened down the 
balancing feature is complete. Valves are so balanced 
that the weight of steam pressure may be excluded 
from the top of the valve, causing it to be moved 
easier, thereby increasing the efficiency of the engine 
from all standpoints. The engine is much easier to 
handle, less wear on the valve gear parts, and does not 
require such an excessive amount of lubrication. 

The holes are drilled in the top of the valve to 
allow any steam that might leak past the strips or 
rings to pass into the exhaust cavity, and out the stack, 
thus not destroying the balance feature. 

32. (a) In the event of a valve, valve stem or 
yoke becoming broken inside the steam chest, how can 
the breakage be located? 

Ans. In the event of any of these defects, they 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 87 

can be located in the following manner : Would first 
place the engine on the quarter, if it were possible to 
get the engine in this position, Avould then set the 
brake, and after opening the cylinder cocks, would 
move the reverse lever from one corner of the quad- 
rant to the other, if the valve admitted steam to first 
one end of the cylinder and then the other would con- 
clude that the trouble was on the other side, and 
would make the same test. If by moving the lever 
the valve could be pushed ahead, but not pulled back, 
the trouble would be a broken valve rod inside the 
steam chest. If it were impossible to exclude steam 
from the cylinders with the engine standing in this 
position, and the reverse lever in the center of the 
quadrant, would conclude that the valve or seat was at 
fault. Would then proceed as follows to put the 
engine in running repair : With the lap of the valve 
broken off would proceed as follows : In case the ports 
could be covered with the valve so as to exclude the 
steam from the cylinders, would place the valve in this 
position, disconnect the valve stem, and clamp it 
solidly. Would then either take off the cylinder head, 
and remove the broken parts of the valve or else take 
down the main rod, and block the cross head back, 
securing it solidly with good blocking. The engine 
would then be ready to proceed on one side. If the rod 
was not taken down it would be necessary to remove 
the indicator plugs and oil the cylinder through them. 
In case the lap was broken off so far that it would be 
impossible to cover the ports, with the remaining part 



80 POCKET EDITION OF 

of the valve, would then have to block with steam. 
With the front lap broken off in this manner, would 
pull the valve back so that the front admission port 
was wide open, would then disconnect, and clamp the 
valve in this position, take down the main rod, and 
block the cross-head back with good solid blocking, 
would then remove the back cylinder cock and proceed 
with the engine on one side. In case it was the back 
lap of the valve that was broken off, would proceed in 
the same manner, blocking the cross-head ahead, 
remove the front cylinder cock or else wedge the front 
head open. In case the lap of the valve was broken 
into the exhaust cavity and could not exclude the 
steam from the exhaust, would take up the steam 
chest cover, and block the induction, or supply ports 
to the steam chest, would use good soft dry pine, 
would then build up on the blocking even with the 
top of the steam chest, replace the steam chest cover 
to hold the blocking in place, take down the main rod 
and block the cross-head back (in case I failed to find 
all the broken parts of the valve), proceed with the 
engine on one side. 

With a broken valve stem, or yoke inside the 
steam chest would proceed as follows : With this 
break it would be possible to push the valve ahead but 
could not pull it back, in case the steam chest was 
provided with a relief valve in front end of chest, 
would remove the relief valve and proceed as follows : 
First plumb the rocker arm, then clamp the valve stem, 
disconnect the valve stem from the valve rod and tie 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING »9 

up the valve stem, push the valve back against the 
valve rod, fit a piece of wood in the relief valve and 
screw it back into place holding the valve centrally on 
its seat, remove the indicator plugs to oil the cylinder, 
and proceed with the engine on one side. With the 
relief valve in the back of the steam chest, would pro- 
ceed as follows : Would first try to shove the valve 
ahead, and open the back steam port to the cylinder in 
case the valve did not travel too far ahead and open the 
exhaust port. In case it did not, clamp the valve in 
this position, disconnect the valve stem, and take down 
the main rod. Would then block the cross-head ahead 
with good solid blocking, take out the front cylinder 
cock or else wedge open the front cylinder head. In 
case the valve would travel too far and admit steam to 
the exhaust (as previously stated), would then take up 
the steam chest cover, place the valve centrally on its 
seat, and block ahead and back of the valve so as to 
hold it in this position, replace the steam chest cover, 
remove the indicator plugs to oil the cylinder. 

If the distance was short to run the engine in 
would have oiled the cylinder when the steam chest 
cover was up. The engine is then ready to proceed on 
one side. 

With the lap broken off of a piston valve (which 
in all probabilities would be a broken admission ring), 
would proceed in case the defect did not interfere too 
much with the valve events, in case it did would dis- 
connect as follows : * Would first try to cover the 
ports with the remaining portion of the valve, in case 



90 POCKET EDITION OF 

it can be done disconnect the valve stem and clamp it 
in this position, remove indicator plugs, to oil the 
cylinder, and proceed with the engine on one side. 

In case this can not be done, would block with 
steam, as for the lap of a slide valve, proceed with the 
engine on one side. 

With a broken valve stem on a piston valve engine 
would proceed as follows : First plumb the rocker arm, 
clamp the valve stem securely in this position, take 
off the front valve chamber head and push the valve 
back against the broken stem, would then block be- 
tween the valve and the front head of the valve cham- 
ber, and proceed with the engine on one side. 

For a totally demolished valve of the piston valve 
type, would take off the valve chamber head, and 
remove the broken parts, would then cut a telegraph 
pole the proper length and wrap the piece with the 
canvas from the cab curtain, and drive it back into the 
valve chamber, replace the head, take down the main 
rod, as some of the pieces of the broken valve may 
have fallen into the cylinder, and would do further 
damage. Block the cross-head and proceed with the 
engine on one side. When an engine has any of these 
just mentioned defects, it requires good judgment 
on the part of the engineer to take the proper course. 
He should be very careful not to take any more cars 
than the engine can handle on one side, and must be 
very careful when using the brake to avoid stopping 
the good engine on the center. Under most all cir- 
cumstances it is only advisable to try to clear the 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING <)I 

main track and then be governed by the train dis- 
patcher's orders in regards to proceeding with the 
train. 

33. If the valve seat is broken, what can be 
done? 

Ans. If the valve seat is broken it can be blocked 
in the following manner : For the front, outside 
bridge, would block with steam, place the valve cen- 
trally on its seat, disconnect, and clamp it securely, 
take down the main rod and proceed with the engine 
on one side, blocking the cross-head back, as with 
the front lap of the valve broken off. 

For the back outside bridge, the blocking should 
be the same with the exception that the cross-head 
should be blocked ahead, instead of back. 

If the exhaust bridges were broken, and all the 
pieces could be found the valve should be blocked 
centrally on its seat, and clamped securely in this 
position, the main rod can then be left up, the cylin- 
ders being oiled through the indicator plugs. If there 
was any doubt as to whether all the pieces had been 
removed, the rod should be taken down, and the cross- 
head blocked in the usual manner. 

With the lap broken off or the bridges broken 
often it is not necessary to do any blocking. So long 
as the defect does not interfere with the working of 
the engine it is better to try to come in rather than 
do any blocking, as these particular defects not only 
cause an engine failure, but are very hard to handle, 
from the standpoint of the engine of today. 



92 POCKET EDITION OF 

34. If engine is disabled on one side, and main 
rod and piston left up, and good engine stops on 
center, how can you get engine started? 

Ans. If an engine is disabled on one side, and the 
good engine stops on center (the main rod being left 
up), would loosen up on the valve stem clamp, and 
move the valve by hand so that the disabled engine 
could take steam, this would help the good engine off 
center. The valve should then be re-clamped cen- 
trally on its seat, and greater care exercised when 
making a stop to prevent getting the good engine on 
center. When stopping a disabled engine it is better 
practice to use the reverse lever, instead of the brake, 
as the compression in the cylinder when the lever is 
being used will prevent the good engine from stopping 
on center. When it is desired to proceed in the for- 
ward motion it is better practice to stop the engine on 
the top quarter on the good side, as the weight of 
the rod, and the angle assumed will be a great help 
in getting the engine started. Always try to give 
the engine a full head of steam with full port open- 
ing, and as soon as the engine has gained a little 
momentum, the throttle can be eased off and the 
reverse lever hooked up. 

If a disabled engine stops on center, and the main 
rod has been taken down, the main rod may be put up 
again, and engine moved off center provided there was 
not some defect that would make this impossible. If the 
steam chest, valve and cylinder, on the disabled side 
were intact, and the break happened to be the main 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 93 

rod, take down the rod on the good side, and put it 
up on the disabled side, the engine can then be moved 
off center. If it were impossible to do any of these 
things, or for reason or design, it was possible to 
gain time by doing otherwise, would proceed as fol- 
lows : Let out all the slack possible on the tank 
brake, or driver brake, which ever was the handiest 
(or both if considered advisable), place a stake against 
the brake piston, and a tie, open the engine throttle, 
and set the brake in emergency, the force of the brake 
piston against the stake will help the engine off cen- 
ter. The engine should then be stopped with the 
lever, trying to stop the good engine on the top 
quarter. This method will move the largest engine 
providing the shoes do not touch the wheel before 
the engine moves. 

35. How can you distinguish between a valve, 
cylinder, packing, or valve strip blow, and locate 
which side it is on? 

Ans. These blows are sometimes very hard to 
locate, but as a rule they may be located by the follow- 
ing symptons and tests. A valve blow is a continuous 
blow, producing a whistling, or wheezy sound, a cylin- 
der packing blow consists of a heavy blow at the be- 
ginning of the stroke and diminishes toward the end 
of the stoke, opening the cylinder cocks while the 
engine is working. Steam shows steam on both ends 
of the cylinder at the same time by reason of the blow 
by the packing, a valve strip blow has a sound like as 
if the blower was open, is continuous while the throttle 



94 POCKET EDITION OF 

is open, and causes a very hard movement of the 
valve due to the fact that the balance on the valve is 
destroyed. Aside from the fact that experience will 
sometimes assist in locating these blows, by their 
sounds and symptoms the following tests can be made 
which will greatly assist in locating the seat of trouble. 
For a valve blow the engine should be placed on the 
top quarter on the side to be tested, hook the reverse 
lever in the center of the quadrant, or plumb the 
rocker arm, the object being to get the valve cen- 
trally on its seat, set the brake, or block the wheels, 
and give the engine steam. If the valve is blowing 
there will be a continuous blow at the stack, as well as 
steam showing at one or both cylinder cocks, depend- 
ing as to where the valve or its seat is cut. 

To test for cylinder packing the engine should be 
placed on the bottom forward eight, the reverse lever 
in full forward gear, set the brake or block the 
wheels, give the engine steam. If steam shows at the 
back cylinder cock it is safe in reporting the cylinder 
packing blowing, although it may be the cylinder out 
of round. In case it is thought that this is the trouble 
the engine can be placed on the bottom quarter and 
the same test made, either a cylinder out of round or 
cylinder packing blowing have the same effect on the 
engine, and it is necessary to have the machinist 
caliper the cylinder in order to determine as to which 
of the two is at fault. 

To test for valve strips blowing the engine should 
be placed on the quarter, set the brake or block the 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 95 

wheels, give the engine steam, move the reverse lever 
from one end of the quadrant to the other, notice how 
hard the valve moves, place the engine on the opposite 
side and made the same test. Whichever side moves 
the hardest would conclude that was the side with the 
strip blowing, as the balance is destroyed and the 
valve with the strip blowing would have boiler pres- 
sure on it, causing it to move hard. 

For a further test would watch the engine while 
^working steam, the side with the strip at fault, the 
valve stem would be wiggling due to the load on the 
valve. 

Another test would be to go out on the pilot when 
the engine was drifting and notice which relief valve 
sucked the least air, the one sucking the least would 
be the one with the defective strip. 

Another test would be to move the valve slowly 
over its seat, the engine standing on the quarter with 
the brake set, open the channel drain cocks, and if 
steam showed at them it would be coming from a 
defective strip. 

36. What do you mean by working steam 
expansively? 

Ans. By working steam expansively is meant, 
the act of causing or allowing (by reason of hooking 
the lever up in the quadrant), the valve to cut off 
the admission of steam, before the piston has reached 
the end of its stroke. The steam that is entrapped in 
the cylinder, forces the piston the remainder of its 
stroke, due to its expansive force. 



96 POCKET EDITION OF 

37. What is ment by the lead of a valve? 

Ans. The lead of a valve is that amount in the 
fraction of inches, the valve is open to the admission 
of steam before the piston reaches the begining of its 
stroke. Lead is some times spoken of as pre-admis- 
sion and means (admitted before), before the piston 
reaches the point at which admission usually takes 
place. 

38. What is meant by outside lap? Why are 
locomotives given lap, and what is meant by inside 
lap? 

Ans. The outside lap of a valve, or the (steam 
lap), of a valve is that amount in inches that the 
valve overlaps the inside edge of the outside bridge, 
when the valve is centrally on its seat. Lap is given 
to the valve in order to produce an earlier cut off, and 
to enable the steam to be worked expansively, during 
the time the valve is traveling the distance of its lap. 

Inside lap is the amount in the fractions of inches 
that the inside edges of the valve, overlap the outside 
edge of the inside bridge when the valve is centrally 
on its seat. Inside lap is given to the valve to delay 
the exhaust, and increase compression. 

Negative lap, or clearance, produces an earlier 
exhaust, and decreases compression, and is usually 
used on a high speed engine. 

39. Why are eccentric blades made adjustable? 
What effect would be produced on the lap and lead 
by changing the length of the eccentric blades? 

Ans. The eccentric blades are made adjustable, 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 97 

to provide a ready means of squaring up the engine, 
or causing the valves to travel evenly over their seat. 
Changing the length of these blades would have no 
effect on the lap and lead of the valve, as lap is given 
to a valve by adding to its edges, and lead is either 
given with the movement of the eccentric in relation 
to the pin, or else by reducing the lap of the valve. 

40. If an engine goes suddenly lame, what might 
be the cause? 

Ans. If an engine goes suddenly lame it may 
be due to some of the following causes : Dry valves, 
caused by improper lubrication, priming or foaming, 
slipped eccentrics, slipped blades, sprung blades, 
spread link, sprung valve stem, cracked valve yoke, 
lap of the valve broken off, broken bridges, broken 
rings, lost cylinder key, broken frame, loose splice 
bolts, loose expansion plate, or deck bolts, or a broken 
by-pass valve. 

41. Having determined the cause of the irregular 
exhaust, how would you be governed? 

Ans. AYould be governed by whatever defect 
found, in case it was dry valves due to improper lubri- 
cation, would increase the feed to valves and cylinders 
ease off, or shut oft the throttle and let the reverse 
lever down for a few seconds, for priming or foaming, 
would treat as explained under the head of priming 
and foaming, for slipped eccentric, or blades would 
reset them, for any of the defects such as sprung 
blades or tumbling shaft arms, would try and 
straighten them if they interfered too much with the 



98 POCKET EDITION OF 

working of the engine, for lost cylinder key would 
substitute with a railspike, file, main-rod key, or any 
thing that could get to stay in place, for broken frame 
would handle as explained under (broken frame), for 
any of the defects in the steam chest, such as broken 
lap bridges, cracked yoke, broken valve stem, or 
broken by-pass valve, would treat as explained under 
these separate heads. 

42. What position on the shaft should the eccen- 
tric be relative to the crank-pin with a direct motion 
engine? With an indirect motion engine? 

Ans. The eccentrics of a locomotive are placed 
as follows : With an outside admission valve (indirect 
motion), or an inside admission valve (direct motion), 
they are placed following the pin 90 degrees, minus the 
lap, and lead, or the angle of advance. With an out- 
side admission (direct motion), or an inside admis- 
sion (indirect motion), they are placed leading the 
pin 90 degrees, plus the lap, and lead, or the angle of 
advance. On an engine with valves having no lap, no 
lead, they would be placed at right angles either lead- 
ing, or following the pin, depending on the admission 
of the valve (inside or outside admission). 

43. In case you found eccentrics had slipped, 
how would you proceed to reset them? 

Ans. In case the eccentrics slip on the shaft 
they should be reset in the following manner: In case 
all the eccentrics are slipped, disconnect the valve 
stem, shift the valve by hand, and move the engine to 
one of its dead centers (forward center preferred), set 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 99 

the brake, and block the wheels, would then connect 
up the valve stem and proceed to set the forward 
motion eccentric on the side with the engine on the 
dead center, place the reverse lever in the full for- 
ward motion, open the cylinder cocks, and give the 
engine a very light throttle of steam. Would then 
get under the engine and move the web, or belly of 
the eccentric, to or from the pin, depending on the 
style of valve (inside, or outside, admission), and the 
motion of the set (either direct, or indirect), until 
steam showed at the front cylinder cock. Would 
then move it back again until steam was cut off, would 
them move it ahead enough to show steam at the front 
cylinder cock, and clamp it in this position, tightening 
up on the set screws, and inserting the key if one is in 
use. The back motion eccentric can then be set in the 
same manner with the engine standing on the same 
center, by placing the reverse lever in the full back 
motion, and moving the web or belly of the back up 
eccentric until steam shows at the same, or front 
cylinder cock. Clamp it in this position, and then 
move the opposite engine on its forward dead center 
and proceed in the same manner. 

When the eccentrics are keyed to the journal they 
are not very liable to slip, but in case they do all that 
is necessary to do is to move the eccentric until the 
key or a substitute can be placed in the keyway. On 
reaching the terminal they should be reported, even 
though they were properly reset. 

Another method of resetting an eccentric is to 



IOO POCKET EDITION OF 

disconnect the valve stem from its rocker arm, and 
move the valve by hand until steam shows at the de- 
sired port, corresponding with the lever, and the 
position in which the engine is standing, then move 
the eccentric on the journal until the rocker arm, and 
valve stem can be coupled up. The eccentric should 
then be clamped in this position. This method is in 
some cases easier as the weight of steam on the valve 
does not have to be contended with. 

44. What would you do if the packing blew out 
of throttle stuffing box? 

Ans. In case the packing blows out of throttle 
stuffing box, on the road, would be governed by cir- 
cumstances, and conditions. If the throttle stuffing- 
box was high in the boiler head, would first tighten 
up on the gland stud nuts and make as good a steam 
tight joint as possible, would then carry the water 
in the boiler as low as possible consistent with safety 
and proceed with full train. If the throttle stuffing 
box was situated low in the boiler head, this could 
not be done, would then proceed to repack the throt- 
tle stuffing box as follows : Would first get the train on 
a siding clear of the main track, and blow the steam 
pressure down to 25 or 35 pounds keeping as little 
water in the boiler as possible consistent with safety. 
Would then loosen up on the gland stud nuts, and 
allow the gland to follow to the end of the threads 
of the stud bolts. Would then take any such sub- 
stance as the bell cord, old overalls, waste, rubber, or 
even the cab curtain, cut up in strips, and after satu- 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING IOl 

rating the same with oil would work it into the stuff- 
ing box, with a packing iron, as soon as the box was 
full, would tighten up on the gland stud nuts, and 
repeat this performance until the stuffing box was well 
filled, would then after getting a full head of steam 
proceed. To pack a throttle with the engine under 
steam requires good judgment, to prevent losing the 
water in the boiler but with a little care be success- 
fully done. Care should be taken to prevent being 
burned. 

45. Explain why moving the reverse lever from 
one end of the quadrant to the other reverses the 
motion of the engine? 

Ans. By moving the reverse lever from one end 
of the quadrant to the other, the motion of the engine 
is reversed in the following manner : With the 
Stephenson link motion both the forward and back- 
ward motions have a separate set of eccentrics, when 
the reverse lever is placed in the forward motion, the 
forward motion eccentric is given control of the link 
block by. reason of it being in direct line of motion 
with it and above the center line of motion. When the 
reverse lever is in the back motion, the back-up eccen- 
tric has control of the link block by reason of it being 
in a direct line, and below the center line of motion. 

46. What is the throw of an eccentric? 

Ans. The throw of an eccentric is that amount 
of crank-like action the eccentric possesses. It is found' 
by the following rule : Twice the distance from the 
center of the journal, to the true center of the eccen- 



162 POCKET EDITION OF 

trie, will give its throw, or the difference from the 
thin edge to the journal, subtracted, from the distance 
from the thick edge or belly, to the journal multiplied 
by two, or twice the difference in inches, or fractions 
thereof will give the throw. 

What must be done if an engine truck wheel or 
axle breaks? 

Ans. If an engine truck wheel, or an axle should 
break, would try to get the engine into a side track 
in the following manner : If a piece of the wheel was 
broken away, would place a fulcrum under the journal 
nearest the broken wheel, move the engine ahead, the 
good wheel on the rail would in rotating, cause the 
good part of the broken wheel to be brought to the 
rail, the broken part being on top would block be- 
tween it and the pilot, with a piece of a tie, and skid 
the wheels into a siding. After getting into the siding 
would take off the pilot, to assist the repairmen when 
they should come to put in a new set of wheels. 

If the axle was broken next to the wheel, would 
proceed in the following manner: Place a chain 
around the engine truck frame, underneath the 
pedestal and around the engine frame proper, would 
then place a fulcrum underneath the pilot beam, and 
move the engine back, after elevating the engine as 
high as possible with the fulcrum, would block under- 
neath the truck frame on the ties, and take up the slack 
in the chain. This performance should be repeated 
until the truck frame was raised higher than normal, 
after which blocking should be placed over right and 



locomotive engineering 103 

left No. 2 engine trucks, between the engine frame 
and truck frame. A chain should then be fastened 
around the main frame, and engine truck frame, and 
then across to the opposite side of the main frame 
to hold the good wheel to the rail. The engine should 
then be run to a side track very carefully, where a new 
set of wheels should be sent for, as well as men to put 
them in. While waiting for the wheels it is the 
engineer's duty to take off the pilot, so as to have 
everything in readiness when the wheels arrive. 

48. State your method of treating a broken tank 
wheel or axle. 

Ans. A broken tank wheel or axle can be blocked 
in the following manner: If the journal was broken 
outside of the wheel, in the oil house, would proceed 
as follows : Place a fulcrum under both sides of tank 
truck in the diamond, run the engine ahead until the 
truck was higher than normal, would then place a 
block over right No. 3, providing it was right No. 4 
that was defective, then place a rail over the top of the 
tank, building up on top of the tank so as not to injure 
the coping of tank, would then chain from both sides 
of the truck to the rail, swinging back of the tank. 
Would then block on both sides of the journal, in the 
oil house of good wheel to prevent defective wheel 
from leaving the rail. 

What wheel if the journal was broken between 
the wheels (right and left No. 4) would elevate both 
sides of the tank truck by placing a fulcrum in the 
diamond, and running the engine ahead, elevating so 



104 POCKET EDITION OF 

as to remove the broken wheels. Would then place a 
tie across the rails and lower the tank truck on the 
tie, would then chain the tie to some part of the truck 
frame and skid the tank into a siding where a new 
set of wheels could be put in. 

49. How would you block for a broken engine 
truck spring or equalizer? How for a broken tank 
truck spring? 

Ans. If the pilot did not touch the rail, would 
first get in on the side track before trying to do any 
blocking. For a broken engine truck spring would 
first remove the cellar, then place a nut on the 
pedestal brace, under the jaw of the box, and then 
place a fulcrum under the truck frame and run the 
engine ahead, would then block on top of the equalizer, 
and underneath the top rail of the engine truck frame. 
Would then run the other wheel up in a like manner 
and block the same. 

For a broken equalizer, would elevate in the same 
manner, but would put the blocks on top of the truck 
box, and underneath the top rail of the engine truck 
frame, removing the broken parts. 

For a broken tank truck spring, place a ful- 
crum under the bolster, and move the engine ahead, 
remove the broken spring, and insert blocking in place- 
of the broken spring, run the engine off the fulcrum, 
and proceed. 

If the spring was of the semi-elliptical form would 
place a fulcrum under the frame of tank, and move the 
engine to elevate the tank, would then block in place 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 105 

of spring, between bolster, and bed of tank, run the 
engine off the fulcrum, and proceed. If the tank does 
not settle too low would proceed without blocking. 

50. Give location of piston rod packing, of cylin- 
der packing, and how metallic packing on valve stems 
and pistons are usually held in place ; and what pro- 
vision is made for the uneven movement of the rods. 

Ans. Piston rod packing is located on the piston 
rod, and is held in place in a stuffing box, by a gland, 
which is in turn fastened to the back cylinder head by 
studs and nuts. 

Cylinder packing is located in the cylinder around 
the piston, and is held in place by grooves in the 
piston, or (bull ring), by a follower plate and bolts. 

The uneven movement of the rod through the 
packing is accommodated by a vibrating cup, which 
in turn forms a ball joint against the gland of the pack- 
ing stuffing box. 

In the newer forms of packing the packing works 
in a slot bored large and accommodates the uneven 
movement of the rod. 

51. If you do not take down main rod on dis- 
abled side of engine, how would you arrange to lubri- 
cate the cylinder? 

Ans. If the main rod is not taken down on the 
disabled side of an engine, the cylinder may be lubri- 
cated through the indicator plugs, or by turning the 
relief valves up side down (providing a free drifting 
engine, the front ports being left open), or in case 
the engine is under steam, the valve may be clamped 



IOb DOCKET fiDlTiON OP 

in a position to allow the saturated steam and oil from 
the lubricator to lubricate the cylinder. When an 
engine is to be towed any great distance it is some- 
times advisable to take down the main rods, as there 
have been cases where the cylinders have been badly 
cut by reason of the pistons riding on the bottom of 
the cylinders, even though oil had been supplied to the 
cylinders. On an engine equiped with by-pass valves, 
the cylinders may be lubricated by removing the caps 
and supplying the oil through them. When lubricat- 
ing a cylinder on an engine that is being towed a 
sufficient quantity of oil should be used to lubricate 
the entire Cylinder. This is sometimes better accom- 
plished by wedging open the front head, even though 
it is a more laborious task than removing the plugs. 

52. In the event of the blower becoming discon- 
nected, how could you create a draft on the fire? 

Ans. In case a blower becomes disconnected, a 
draft may be created on the fire, by making a leak in 
the air, and allowing the air pump exhaust to fan the 
fire. Or in case this method fails, the head of the bush- 
ing on the 9 1-2 inch pump may be removed and the 
small slide valve removed, the head replaced, and the 
pump throttle opened. This will usually create suf- 
ficient draft, if not the valve stem may be discon- 
nected and the valve shifted so as to open the axhaust 
port, then with the throttle opened slightly a draft 
can be created. Still another method, on an engine 
equipped with a by-pass valve is to remove the cap 
and take out the valve, replace the cap and open the 



Locomotive engineering 107 

engine throttle slightly and a draft will be created on 
the fire. 

The front end may be opened and the blower con- 
nected up, but this is not advisable, as conditions in 
the smoke box on most engines, make it most impossi- 
ble to do this with a fire in the box. As a rule some 
one of these first named methods will prove sufficient 
to get the fire going, so that the exhaust steam from 
the engine handled carefully will create sufficient draft 
for the fire. 

53. What should be done if a driver spring, 
spring hanger, or equalizer, should break on an 8 or 10 
wheel engine? 

Ans. In case of any of these breaks, it will be 
necessary to elevate, and block as follows : With 
under hung spring rigging, for a broken back hanger, 
of the back spring, the front hanger of the middle 
spring, the front hanger of the front spring, front 
spring, or equalizer is broken. The engine should be 
elevated and blocked as follows : The back driver 
should be run up on a wedge, and iron blocking placed 
on top of the middle driving box. Then run the back 
driver ofT the wedge, and run the middle driver on the 
wedge, then place blocking over the front and back 
driving boxes, run the middle driver off the wedge, 
and the engine is then ready to block for any of the 
following defects. 

Forward hanger of the front spring, a block should 
be placed between the forward end of the front spring, 
and the lower rail of the frame. 



108 TOCKET EDITION OF 

Back hanger of the back spring, a block should be 
placed between the back end of the back spring and 
the lower rail of the frame. 

Front spring, chain the forward end of the front 
equalizer to the bottom rail of the frame, or a block 
should be placed in the forward hanger of the middle 
spring underneath the lower rail of the frame. As an 
extra precaution a block should be placed over the 
front driving box. 

Front equalizer, place a block between the back 
end of the front spring, and the lower rail of the 
frame. Place another block between the forward end 
of the middle spring and the bottom rail of the frame. 

Forward hanger of the middle spring, place a 
block between the forward end of the middle spring, 
and the lower rail of the frame, chain up the front 
equalizer. Block in the safety hanger of the spring if 
engine is so equipped. 

54. In what way could you distinguish a leaky 
throttle from a leaky dry pipe? 

Ans. A throttle or dry pipe when leaking bad is 
a very dangerous defect. In order to distinguish be- 
tween the two the following test should be made : A 
leaky throttle usually shows dry steam at the cylinder 
cocks, while the dry pipe shows both steam and water. 
These indications are not sufficient evidence to make 
out a report on unless the following test has been 
made : First shut off the lubricator, and fill the boiler 
full enough of water to submerge the dry pipe, then 
open the cylinder cocks. If dry steam continues to 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING IOC; 

show at the cylinder cocks it is safe in reporting the 
throttle valve leaking. While if water and steam both 
show at the cylinder cocks, the dry pipe should be 
reported leaking. 

55. With an engine equipped with grease in the 
driving box cellars, how would you know there was 
sufficient grease in the cellar to make the trip? If it 
needed packing on the road, how would you proceed 
to repack it? 

Ans. If an engine is equipped with a grease 
driving box lubricator, the amount of grease in the 
cellar can be told by the indicator plugs underneath 
the driving box. When the indicators are flush with 
the spring follower, there is usually considered suf- 
ficient grease in the cellar for the engine to make at 
least 200 miles, but they should be reported as soon 
as the engine gets to a terminal. In case the cellars 
need packing while on the road, it can be done in the 
following manner : When provided with a cellar pull- 
ing device, hook the hooks in the eyes of the indicators, 
and pull the follower down by turning on the screw of 
the pulling device. When not provided with this 
device, remove the plate on the side of the grease 
cellar, and pry down on the follower plate, then insert 
sticks of rod grease cut in halves, place the flat surface 
of the grease on the follower. This allows the round 
surface to fit against the perforated plate, and will 
soon wear down to an even pressure on the surface 
of the plate. When it is impossible to obtain any 
grease, saturate waste with valve oil, and place it 



110 POCKET EDITION OF 

• 

between the follower and the perforated plate. This 
will serve to lubricate when nothing else is at hand, 
such as ordinary laundry soap, graphite, rod grease or 
even tallow. On reaching the terminal the box should 
be reported packed. In case the time to do this work 
was short, and the distance was not great, the grease 
can be placed on top of the perforated plate, as this 
is somewhat quicker and easier done than trying to 
put it between the plate and the follower, but this is 
not advisable only in the cases mentioned. 
HOT BEARINGS. 

56. Explain how you treat hot bearings. 

Ans. There is probably nothing in the line of 
engine defects, more annoying than hot bearings. 
They not only cause serious delays, but are often an 
item of needless expense to the railroad company if 
not properly treated. 

When any bearing is detected running hot, it 
should be treated at once, if possible as (an ounce of 
preventitive is worth a pound of cure). Treat the 
bearing as soon as possible, and avoid an additional 
amount of labor, as well as by so doing a certain 
amount of oil may be saved. 

With a hot engine truck, do not wait until the 
waste takes fire, before treating. First examine the 
hose, and oil pipe to the brass, it may be out of place, 
the oil cup may be stopped up and no oil allowed to 
feed to the brass, examine the brass, it may be broken, 
or worn out, see that the cellar contains plenty of 
good packing. If the engine is equipped with a water 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING ■ III 

line turn on the water at once and proceed, being cer- 
tain that there is sufficient waste in the cellar to carry 
the water up to the journal, if not put some in. If the 
trouble is caused by a worn out or broken brass, 
replace the brass as explained under the subject of 
replacing engine truck and tank brasses. If the engine 
has no water line it will be necessary to cool off the 
journal, and repack the cellar, supplying a sufficient 
amount of valve for a while, after the brass has begun 
to run cool, engine oil can then be used again. Engine 
trucks generally run hot due to improper lubrication, 
as there is not an excessive weight to contend with, 
the trouble generally being found in a disconnected oil 
pipe. 

HOT GUIDES. 
Guides usually run hot either by reason of being 
out of line, or else after being closed in they are found 
to be too tight. If caused by being closed in too tight, 
the guide bolts should be slacked up on and thin 
liners inserted both front and back, the bolts tight- 
ened up again, and a liberal supply of oil allowed to 
feed to them for a few miles. If caused by being 
out of line a good supply of oil should be fed to them 
and they should be reported as soon as the engine 
reaches a terminal. If impossible to run them in this 
condition the engine will have to be disconnected on 
that side, the main rod taken down, cross head blocked 
back in the usual manner, and the engine brought in 
on one side, where the condition of the guides should 
be reported. 



112 POCKET EDITION OF 

HOT PISTON. 

Hot pistons are a very rare thing since metallic 
packing came into general use, but was a quite 
frequent occurrence when hemp was used as a packing. 
When it now occurs it is generally caused by the 
piston being sprung, or the guides badly out of line. 
The piston packing gland cramped on the rod, or 
possibly to the manner in which the piston has been 
packed. When the piston is found to be hot it should 
be stopped with as much as possible of it in the cylin- 
der, and the cause for its running hot located. If 
caused by sprung piston or guides out of line all that 
can be done is to slack off on the gland stud bolts, and 
supply some oil, run the engine in and report the con- 
dition, on the arrival at the terminal. If sprung so bad 
that it can not safely be run the engine will have to be 
disconnected on that side, take down the main rod, 
and block the piston ahead, wedge the front head open, 
as a precaution against the valve shifting and pro- 
ceed with the engine on one side. Never under any 
circumstances use water on a hot piston. 
HOT PIN OR BRASSES. 

When the pins run hot it is usually caused by the 
brass being keyed to the pin too tight, or too loose, a 
cut pin, or an improper amount of lubrication. The 
cause for the trouble should first be located, and then 
be governed by what is found. If due to improper 
lubrication', a sufficient amount should be supplied. 
If caused by reason of being too tight, the set screws 
should be loosened, and the key slacked off, tighten 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING II3 

up on the set screws, give the pin a sufficient amount 
of lubrication and proceed. If pounding hot the brass 
should be keyed up with the engine standing on the 
proper points, a sufficient amount of lubrication sup- 
plied, and then proceed. If caused by a cut pin or a 
broken brass, all that can be done is to keep plenty of 
lubrication on the parts, try to get in where the con- 
dition should be reported. "When a pin or brass is very 
hot it is advisable to cool it down with hot water, 
from the overflow of the injector before supplying a 
lubricant. When the engine is equipped with grease 
(as is now the general practice), there is scarcely any 
trouble aside from the fact that the brasses are keyed 
too tight or else the cup is allowed to run empty. 
HOT DRIVING BOX. 
With a hot driving box (oil box), and the engine 
equipped with a water line, the water should be turned 
on at once, being certain that there is sufficient waste 
in the cellar to bring the water up to the journal. If 
not it should be put in, the top of the box well oiled 
and the engine is then ready to proceed. If the engine 
is not equipped with a water line it will be necessary 
to cool off the box and repack it with good clean 
waste and valve oil, being careful to get the waste well 
up under the journal. The top of the box should be 
well oiled to prevent the wedges from sticking as they 
are very liable to do when the box is hot. If after 
all that can be done in the line of packing is done, and 
the box still runs hot, it will then be necessary to take 
some of the weight off that particular box, by elevating 



114 POCKET EDITION OF 

the engine and blocking between the spring saddle and 
the frame (with the over hung spring rigging), or by 
chaining up the ends of the equalizers, nearest the 
box (with the under hung spring rigging). 

With the grease cellar, and the box runs hot, all 
that can be done is to make certain by an examination 
that the cellar contains grease, and that it is feeding, 
if it does not contain grease, or is not feeding, it should 
be treated as explained under the head of (driving box 
lubricators). If taking the weight off the box is neces- 
sary it can be done as explained in preceding para- 
graph. Grease boxes run much hotter at all times 
than an oil box, and consequently the wedges should 
receive more oil than with the other style. Never use 
a water line in connection with a grease box, as the 
water will cause the grease to assume the form of 
suds, and all the lubricating qualities will be destroyed 
Driving boxes like all other bearings on the engine 
usually run hot due to neglect in the proper amount 
of lubrication. They should receive a sufficient amount 
of lubricant in time to enable it to get to its bearing 
before the engine is started, the cellars should be 
well packed, and little if any trouble will be 
experienced from hot bearings. If the oil holes in a 
driving box become stopped up, it can be told by the 
oil coming back up on top of the box through the 
other holes, this should be reported as soon as the 
engine reaches a terminal. 

HOT ECCENTRICS. 

When an eccentric runs hot it is generally due to 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 115 

the fact that the oil hole is stopped up, or that the 
strap is too tight. This may be caused by reason of it 
being closed in too tight, or that the cam in working 
lose on the journal, has filled in the strap causing it to 
run hot. If caused by the eccentric slipping on the 
journal, it should be reset, as explained under the head 
of (slipped eccentric), being careful not to tighten up. 
on the set screws too tight and cause the cam to bind 
in the strap. If the oil hole is stopped up it should 
be cleaned out with a piece of wire, oil the eccentric 
well and proceed. If it is running hot due to being too 
tight, the strap bolts should be losened up on thin 
liners inserted (top and bottom), the bolts tightened 
up, a sufficient amount of oil supplied, and the engine 
is then ready to proceed. The eccentric sometimes 
run hot due to a very heavy strain placed on them by 
dry valves, caused by improper lubrication or possi- 
ble priming and foaming. In these cases the seat of the 
trouble would have to be remedied. Never use water 
on a hot eccentric as this would certainly cause the 
strap to break as it being made of cast iron or steel, 
would contract and would in so doing be sure to crack 
if it did not break. 

HOT TRAILER. 
A hot trailer is usually caused by an insufficient 
amount of oil, broken, or worn out brass, or possibly 
the waste in the oil house does not touch the journal, 
the best remedy is to turn on the water, and proceed. 
The trailer carries much of the weight of the back end 
of the engine, and should be very carefully taken care 



Il6 POCKET EDITION OF 

of. If it is necessary to replace the brass it can be 
done as explained under the head of replacing (engine 
truck, tank truck, or trailer brasses). 
HOT TANK TRUCK. 

With a hot tank truck treat as for a hot engine 
truck, turning on the water if the engine is so 
equipped. 

Proper inspection, and careful oiling of parts, will 
in a great measure prevent hot bearings, but when 
they do occur it requires good judgment on the part 
of the engineer to prevent an engine failure, as well as 
to prevent serious delay to all train considered. 

57. What would you do if you discovered steam 
chest cracked? What if badly broken? 

Ans. If the steam chest were to become cracked, 
and it did not interfere too fuch with the steaming of 
the engine, or the view of the engineer in cold weather, 
would proceed. But in case it was necessary to make 
repairs, would first get in on the side track, and pro- 
ceed as follows to get the engine in condition to con- 
tinue the trip. Would first take up the casing around 
the chest, and in case the chest was provided with the 
studs on the outside, would try and wedge in between 
the studs and draw the crack together. If the studs 
were on the inside of the chest, would place a chain 
around the chest and use a jack to draw the chain 
tight. This would close the crack, and the engine 
would then be ready to proceed. On reaching the 
terminal an intelligent work report should be made 
out, covering the defect. When this method is used 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 11/ 

the jack should be placed on the front of the chest so 
that it will not strike anything. 

In case the chest was badly broken, it would then 
be necessary to block the induction ports, to the steam 
chest. If enough of the studs were left, would fasten 
down the blocking with fish plates, and the remaining 
studs. If all the studs were gone, would then build 
up with blocking on top of the cylinder (blocking the 
induction ports), and hold it in place with a chain using 
a jack to take the slack out of the chain. The engine is 
then ready to proceed on one side, to the terminal, 
handling what cars the engine was able to one side. 

58. How would you proceed to block up for a 
broken driver spring, spring hanger, or equalizer on an 
Atlantic type engine? How for a broken trailer 
spring? 

Ans. If a driving spring or an equalizer should 
break, it can be blocked in the following manner : Front 
spring, run the trailer on a wedge, and place a block 
over the main driving box, run the trailer off the 
wedge, and run the main driver on the wedge, place a 
normal block over the front driving box (this is to 
assist in carrying the weight of the front end of the 
engine), now place a block in the back hanger of the 
front spring, on top of the top rail of the frame. If it 
were impossible to place the blocking in, with the 
engine standing in this position, would then stake 
up the forward end of the side equalizer. This would 
bring the equalizer up so that the blocking could be 
placed in the place just mentioned. If the back hanger 



Il8 POCKET EDITION OF 

of the front spring, was broken the engine should be 
elevated in the same manner, but the blocking should 
be placed on the forward end of the front equalizer, on 
top of the bottom rail of the frame. If the equalizer 
was broken at the stand (front equalizer), the trailer 
should be run on a wedge, then place a block over the 
main driving box, the trailer should then be run off 
the wedge, and the main driver run on the wedge, 
then place all the blocking possible on top of the front 
box. Then run the main driver off the wedge, and 
place a fulcrum under the back end of the engine 
frame, move the engine ahead so as to elevate the 
engine. Would then place a block in the back hanger 
of the front spring, underneath the top rail of the 
frame, and also place a block in the front hanger of 
the main spring, underneath the top rail of the frame. 
Would then run the engine off the fulcrum, and run 
the main driver upon the wedge and remove the block- 
ing on the front box. Would then remove the block- 
ing on top of the main box by running the main down, 
the trailer up, the blocking could then be removed 
Then run the trailer off the wedge, and the engine is 
ready to proceed. 

If the side equalizer was broken, first run the 
trailer on a wedge, then place a block over the back, 
or main driving box, run the trailer off the wedge, and 
run the main up. Now place a block over the top of 
the trailer box, between the top of the box and the 
supplementary frame, at the same time place a block 
between the cross equalizer and the main frame. The 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING IIC) 

main driver should now be run off the wedge, and the 
trailer run up, now place a block in the back hanger of 
the main spring, underneath the bottom rail of the 
main frame, at the same time remove the block from 
the top of the main driving box, run the trailer off the 
wedge, and run the main up, remove the block from the 
top of the trailer box, the engine is then ready to pro- 
ceed. If the front hanger of the trailer spring was 
broken, place a fulcrum under the cross equalizer, and 
move the engine. This would bring the cross equalizer 
up so blocking could be placed in the U hanger, un- 
derneath the cross equalizer. The engine should then 
be run off the fulcrum, and the back end of the main 
frame staked up. This will raise the cross equalizer so 
that it can be chained to the forward end of the trailer 
spring. The blocking should then be removed from 
the U hanger, and the engine is ready to proceed. 

To substitute for a cross equalizer, that is broken 
would proceed in the following manner: Place a ful- 
crum under the back end of both side equalizer, remove 
the broken parts, and elevate the engine. Use a piece of 
a rail as a substitute, placing it in the U hangers, and 
block solidly underneath, the move the engine off the 
fulcrum, and elevate the back end of the engine with a 
fulcrum placed under the back end of the main frame. 
Now chain the forward end of both trailer springs to 
the substituted cross equalizer, remove the blocking in 
the U hanger, and the engine is ready to proceed. 

For a broken trailer spring where no substitute is 
to be used would proceed in the following manner: 



120 POCKET EDITION OF 

Place a fulcrum under the cross equalizer, and after 
the engine has been elevated block in the U hanger 
underneath the cross equalizer. Would then move the 
engine off the fulcrum, and run the main driver upon 
a wedge, now place the blocking over the trailer box, 
underneath the supplimentary frame. Remove the 
broken parts, as well as the time will permit and the 
engine is ready to proceed. 

When the trailer spring is broken and a substitute 
is to be used, would proceed in the following manner : 
Place a fulcrum under the cross equalizer and raise 
them higher than normal, then block in the U hanger, 
underneath the cross equalizer. Run the engine off 
the fulcrum, and place the substitute in place of the 
broken spring, chain one end of the substitute to the 
supplimentary frame, and the other to the cross 
equalizer, by placing a fulcrum under the cross equal- 
izer, or else by fulcruming up the main frame. Run 
the engine up so as to remove the blocking from the 
U hanger, and the engine is ready to proceed. 

59. Explain how you would adjust grease cups to 
get the best results, and effect the greatest economy in 
the use of grease. 

Ans. The proper method of adjusting grease 
cups is as follows : Fill the cup and turn the plug 
down about two full turns. This is considered sufficient 
grease for a trip. In order to tell that the pin is get- 
ting the grease, it will be necessary to wait a few 
seconds after screwing down on the plug. If the plug 
screws easy after waiting it is safe to say that the 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 121 

grease is feeding to the pin. After the engine is in 
motion and the pin warms up the grease feeds as 
needed by the expansion of the grease in the cup. 

Another method is to notice the amount of lateral 
motion in the brass on the pin, then screw the plug 
down until the rod feels tight on the pin. Do not 
screw the plug down until the grease shows around 
the collars as this is considered a waste. After pres- 
sure has been applied to the grease in the cup, one or 
two turns is considered sufficient to run the engine two 
hundred miles. 

60. What must be done if piston, cross head, 
main rod or crank pin is bent or broken? 

Ans. If the piston becomes broken or badly bent 
it will be necessary to take down the main rod, block 
the cross head, clamp the valve centrally on its seat 
and come in with the engine on one side. It depends 
as to where the piston is broken, or how badly it is 
bent as to whether it will be necessary to take down 
the rod and disconnect the engine. If the piston is not 
badly bent, it may be left up, loosen up on the gland 
nuts of the piston rod packing, disconnect the valve, 
and clamp it centrally on its seat. Make provision to 
oil the cylinder, and the engine is ready to proceed. 

In case the piston was broken off close to the 
cross head, the engine could be disconnected as fol- 
lows : Were the piston rod broken off close to the 
cross-head or close to the piston proper the main rod 
can be left up, the piston should be removed from the 
cylinder, and after disconnecting and clamping the 



122 POCKET EDITION OF 

valve centrally on its seat the engine is ready to pro- 
ceed. 

In case the cross head is badly broken it will be 
necessary to take down the main rod, and remove the 
piston from the cylinder, clamp the valve centrally on 
its seat and the engine is ready to proceed. If there is 
enough of the cross head left to follow in the guides, 
remove the broken parts, disconnect the valve and 
clamp it centrally on its seat, leave the main rod up and 
proceed. 

With the crank pin badly bent it will be necessary 
to take down the main rod, and side rods. If the side 
rods have to be taken down on one side all rods on the 
opposite side must also be taken down. The engine 
would then have to be run in light with one main rod 
up. In case the pin was not too badly bent, the engine 
can be run in with all rods up by slacking off on the 
keys in the middle connection, and the back end of the 
main rod, so as to allow the rods to pass the dead cen- 
ters. Disconnect the disabled side clamp the valve 
centrally on its seat, and proceed with the engine on 
one side. 

In case of a broken main rod, the engine should 
be disconnected on the side with the broken rod, 
clamp the valve centrally on its seat, take the piston 
out of the cylinder, as an extra precaution in case the 
valve should shift and do further damage. The engine 
is then ready to proceed on one side. 

61. If the lifting shaft, reverse lever or reach 
rod should break, what can be done? 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 123 

Ans. In case the lifting shaft should break, it 
would be necessary to remove the broken parts, and 
block as follows : Place a block in both links, top and 
bottom, at the desired point of cut off, in the desired 
direction in which the engine is to be operated. The 
link should be blocked at a point of cut off that will 
enable the engine to handle the train all over the road. 
A space of about three-fourths of an inch should be 
left on each link to allow for the slip of the link block. 
When it is necessary to reverse the motion of the 
engine the blocks should be removed, and the long 
block placed on the bottom the short one being placed 
on top, in case the links had first been blocked in the 
forward motion. 

In case the reverse lever should break, it will be 
necessary to block in the links, as for a broken lifting 
shaft, unless the design of the engine offers some 
means of securing the remaining parts of the broken 
lever at the desjred point of cut off. 

With a broken reach rod, the engine may be put 
in condition to continue the trip, by blocking solidly 
in one link (top and bottom), in the desired motion, 
and proper working point of cut-off consistent with 
conditions, or if the reversing arm extends through the 
running board, it can be fastened at the desired point 
of cut off by nailing blocks on either side of the arm. 
Some roads object to blocking one link in case of a 
broken lifting shaft, reversing arm or reach rod, in 
this case both links should be blocked top and bottom 
allowing for the slip of the link block. The objection 



124 POCKET EDITION OF 

being that by blocking one link an unnecessary strain 
is placed on the remaining parts of the valve gear. 

62. When necessary to block a cross head, how 
would you do so, and what would you guard against? 

Ans. When blocking a cross head it is advisable 
to block it back, whenever possible. The proper 
method is to make an allowance for the packing rings, 
being careful not to block them in the counterbore of 
the cylinder. On small power this is quite easily done, 
as the rings are small and the counterbore is large. 
On the larger power it is not so easily done but in 
blocking the cross head, on any engine a block about 
one inch thick should be first placed in the guides to 
prevent the piston packing rings from getting in the 
counterbore. The cross head should then be moved 
back against the small block and then securely held in 
this position by good solid oak blocking, the blocking 
being held in place with bell cord or wire, when no 
other means is at hand, the back cylinder cock should 
then be removed, as a warning in case the valve should 
shift. Whenever it is necessary to block the cross 
head ahead, it is always advisable to wedge open the 
front head, and then in case the valve does shift, no 
further damage will result. 

When blocking the cross head on some classes of 
engines, care should be exercised to notice that the pin 
of the forward driver clears the wrist pin, in case it 
does not it will then be necessary either to block the 
cross head ahead or else in some cases in the middle of 
the guides. On some engines (with alligator guides), 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 125 

the cross head can only be securely blocked back, as 
the open guides of this style offer no means of securing 
the blocking if it became necessary to block the cross 
head ahead. 

63. What can and should be done in case of a 
broken eccentric strap or blade? 

Ans. In case of a broken eccentric strap or blade, 
the method of proceedure depends on the style of the 
engine as well as the motion in which the engine is 
working at the time. On some engines, with long 
heavy blades, or on engines with transmission bars, 
all that can be done is to take down and remove the 
broken parts, as well as the mate to the defective 
eccentric. 

BROKEN BACK UP ECCENTRIC, STRAP OR 
BLADE. 

In case the engine is working in forward motion 
at the time, and is not equipped with the heavy blades 
or transmission bars, the reverse lever should be placed 
in the full forward motion, and the train gotten in on 
the side track, where the engine should be discon- 
nected as follows : In these defects it is always 
advisable to remove all broken parts, as well as well as 
to take down the mate to the defective parts, even 
though the engine can be operated in full gear with 
the back-up eccentric strap, or blade broken it is only 
advisable to do so in order to clear the main track, as 
there is always a possibility of the link turning over 
and this of course would do further damage. In case 
of the forward motion eccentric, strap or blade, break- 



120 POCKET EDITION OF 

ing, and the engine is to be operated in the forward 
motion, it will be necessary to take down the mate to 
the broken parts, disconnect the engine, clamping the 
valve centrally on its seat. The train can then be got- 
ten in on the side track, by taking as many cars as 
the engine can handle working on one side, and 
making as many trips as necessary to clear the main 
line. After putting the engine in safe working con- 
dition, would take as many cars as the engine could 
handle working one side and proceed, or would, be 
governed by the train dispatcher's instructions. In 
case any two eccentrics, straps, or blades, should break 
(that is the two forward, or the two back up), would 
be governed by the circumstances, with both backup 
eccentrics, straps or blades broken and the engine 
working in the forward motion at the time. Would 
proceed as in the case of any one being broken, the 
engine would be able to work in the forward motion 
but could not be operated in the backup motion. With 
both of the forward motion, eccentric strap or blades 
broken the engine could be operated in the backup, but 
not in the forward motion. In case for any reason it 
became necessary to do this (that is, use both 
motions), the strap and blade of one of the good eccen- 
trics will have to be taken off and placed on the cam 
of the defective eccentric. This will give an engine 
working one side, and would be governed accordingly. 
Take what cars the engine can handle working one 
side, and proceed. 

64. How would you disconnect, if lower rocker 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING I2J 

arm become broken? How for a broken transmission 
bar or hanger? How for link block pin? 

Ans. In case the lower rocker arm becomes 
broken it will be necessary to disconnect the engine on 
the disabled side, clamp the valve centrally on its seat, 
remove the broken parts, oil the cylinder through the 
indicator plugs and proceed with the engine working 
one side. If there is any danger of the link striking the 
remaining part of the rocker arm, the link or the rocker 
arm will have to be removed (whichever is the easier). 
If this is not done there is danger of the link striking 
the rocker arm and shifting the valve. This would be 
liable to cause further damage. 

In case of a broken transmission bar hanger it 
necessary to remove the broken parts, and also the 
remaining parts, clamp the valve centrally on its seat, 
oil the cylinder, in the usual way when the rod is left 
up, and proceed with the engine working one side. 

In case of a broken transsmission bar hanger, it 
will be necessary to block solidly in the link (on the 
disabled side), at the desired point of cut off, guard 
against reversing the engine by placing a block in the 
other link or by securing the reverse lever. The engine 
may then proceed with the full train. 

In case of a broken link block pin, substitute if 
possible with any bolt that will fit in the hole (a 
knuckle pin of a draw bar will serve to get the train 
off the main track, and will do as a substitute, pro- 
viding it can be secured in place). If there is a hole in 
the end of the knuckle a piece of wire may be used 



128 POCKET EDITION OF 

to fasten the pin so that it can not work out. In case 
no substitute is at hand, disconnect the valve and 
clamp it centrally on its seat, fasten the lower rocker 
arm so that it can not be struck by the link, if possible, 
if not the link or rocker arm will have to be removed, 
as there would be further damage done if the link 
should strike the rocker arm and shift the valve. 

65. How would you move an engine if reverse 
lever or reach rod was caught at short point of cut-off 
by a broken spring or hanger? 

Ans. In case the reverse lever or reach rod is 
caught by a broken spring or hanger, !t will either 
be necessary to disconnect the valve stem, or else 
knock out the reach rod pin. At the same time the 
engine is to be moved, place blocking so as to elevate 
and block for a broken spring or hanger. If the engine 
will move herself with the lever at a short point of 
cut-off, elevate and block for the broken spring or 
hanger. After moving the valve by hand, and block- 
ing for the defect, connect up and proceed. 

66. What leaks in the front end would affect the 
steaming qualities of the engine? 

Ans. Steam leaks in the front end are most dis- 
astrous to the steaming qualities of an engine. They 
are such leaks as follows : Leaky steam pipes, the 
gasket blown out of the nozzle tip, or stand, burst 
flues, or any steam leaks, from any cause such as leaks 
around the flues or superheater flues, etc. Air leaks 
from the outside also destroy the steaming qualities 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 120, 

of an engine as both steam and air leaks destroy the 
vacuum created by the exhaust steam. 

67. What would you do if one of the safety valve 
springs broke? 

Ans. In case one of the safety valve springs 
broke, it would be necessary to get both injectors to 
work, and as soon as the pressure is sufficiently 
reduced, try to seat the valve with the broken spring 
by slacking off the lock nut, and screwing down on the 
tension screw until the valve is forced to its seat. If 
the bolt or screw was not long enough to accomplish 
this it would be necessary to place a nut under the 
screw and then try to seat the valve by screwing 
down on the bolt. The pressure can then be regulated 
for the remainder of the trip with the other safety 
valves. The regulating, or tension, screw is purposely 
made long, so that the valve can be seated in case the 
spring should break. 

68. If the wedge is up against the top rail of the 
frame, and the box still pounded, what report would 
you make? 

Ans. In case the wedge is up against the top rail 
of the frame, and the box still pounds it would be 
necessary to report the wedge lined down, so that it 
could take up the lost motion by being set up. The 
cause for the box pounding, with the wedge up against 
the top rail of the frame, is that the wedge has worn 
too small for the space it has to fill, and by lining 
it down is meant that a piece will kave to be riveted to 
the wedge to take up the lost motion. The wedge can 



I30 POCKET EDITION OF 

then be set up again until it strikes the top rail of the 
frame when it will again have to be reported lined 
down. 

69. In reporting work on any wheel or truck on 
tank or engine, how should you designate by number 
which one is meant? 

Ans. When reporting work on any wheel by 
number, it should be done as follows : Beginning with 
the right front engine truck, it should be called right 
No. i, the second wheel right No. 2, etc., the tank 
trucks should be spoken of as right No. 3, 4, 5, 6. Or 
in speaking of the wheels on the right side of an engine 
they should be called right Nos. I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc. The 
left side should be spoken of as left Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 
6, etc. The drivers should be spoken of on an eight 
wheel engine as right and left, main and back ; on a ten 
wheel engine they should be spoken of as right or left 
front, main and back. On a consolidation engine they 
should be spoken of as right No. i, driver, No. 2, 3, or 
main, 4, or back driver; on the left side the same. On 
an engine with a pony truck the wheels should be 
called right or left pony truck. On aw engine with 
trailer they should be spoken of as, right or left trailer 
truck wheel. 

70. What would be the result, if guides and cross 
heads were not in line? 

Ans. In case the guides or cross heads are not in 
line, it causes an uneven wear on the guides, and 
cross head, piston rod, and cylinder packing cramps 
the brasses on the pins, causing them to run hot, is 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING I3I 

very liable to spring the main or side rods, also the 
piston rod. If allowed to run this way long might be 
the cause of a broken piston, or cross head. 

71. What can be done in case a link saddle pin, 
link hanger, or lifting arm should be broken? 

Ans. In case of a broken link saddle pin, link 
hanger, or lifting arm, it will be necessary to block 
solidly in the link at the desired point of cut-off (block 
top and bottom). The engine may then proceed work- 
ing steam expansively, on the good engine, or the 
engine under which you have control with the reverse 
lever, hooking it to the point that is considered most 
economical. When necessary to reverse the motion 
of the engine the blocks in the link will have to be 
changed, the long block in the top of the link and the 
short one in the bottom if it is desired to back up. On 
a high speed passenger job, where it is not necessary 
often to drop the lever, the link block can be blocked 
centrally in the link. This will prevent changing the 
blocking when it is necessary to back up, and when the 
good engine is hooked to its running notch, the valve 
events will be more in unison. 

72. With one link blocked up, what must you 
guard against? 

Ans. When it is necessary to block one link, the 
engineer should guard against reversing the engine 
without first changing the blocks, in the link of the 
disabled side. He should also guard against hooking 
the engine down with the over hung lifting arms, or 
hooking the engine up with the under hung lifting 



132 POCKET EDITION OF - 

arms, as there is danger of getting the arms back of the 
link and doing further damage. With one link- 
blocked it is always advisable to either place a block 
in the other link or else secure the lever in such a way 
that it will be impossible to reverse, or hook the 
engine either up or down. On most engines there is 
a set screw hole in the reverse lever for this purpose. 

73. (a) Explain what you would do with frame 
broken between main driver and cylinder? (b) A 
broken frame back of main driver? (c) A loose or lost 
cylinder key? 

Ans. In case of a broken frame between the 
main driver and the cylinder, it will be necessary to 
set out the train. In some cases it is advisable to 
disconnect the engine on the disabled side, but in all 
cases it is necessary to handle the engine very care- 
fully as there is great danger of doing further damage 
by shearing the cylinder bolts, knocking out cylinder 
heads, or by breaking rods and pins. It is not advisa- 
ble to try to handle any cars, or in some instances to 
even be towed, in a train, as the strain of pulling on 
the broken frame is very liable to do further damage 
when the frame opens up. In case the engine is to be 
towed in the piston should be taken out of the cylin- 
der, to prevent the' heads from being knocked out. 

The strain of the broken frame when it then opens 
up will fall on the rod and pins. If the engine is 
coming in under her own steam, and the engine has 
been disconnected, great care should be exercised to 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 133 

prevent the engine from slipping as this would cer- 
tainly do further damage. 

With the frame broken back of the main driver, it 
is sometimes advisable to take down the back section 
of side rods. The engine may then proceed with two- 
thirds of her train. If the train be a light one, or the 
engine through circumstances is running light, it 
would not be necessary to take down the back sec- 
tion of side rods, but the engineer should handle the 
engine very carefully and not impose any unnecessary 
strain on the broken frame. With the bottom rail of 
a double rail frame broken proceed to the terminal 
with the full train and on arrival report the con- 
dition of the frame, along with the general condition 
of the engine. Some authorities take into considera- 
tion the nature of the break in these cases, but by the 
greatest number it is not considered advisable to try 
to handle a train with the frame broken ahead of the 
main driver even though it is a smooth break and does 
not open up to any great extent. The possibility of 
doing greater damage to the engine offsets the econ- 
omy of so doing*. 

With a loose cylinder key, would try to tighten 
it by driving something in along side of it. When it 
is lost, would try to substitute, using a rod key, 
track spike, or a square file, or anything in the nature 
and shape of the key. Failing in this would treat as 
a broken frame, as the consequences are the same, so 
far as damage to the engine is concerned, in case it 
can not be fixed. 



134 POCKET EDITION OF 

Engines being handled with broken frames and 
lost cylinder keys should be handled very carefully, 
reduce the steam pressure (if necessary with the safety 
valves), and use great care to prevent doing further 
damage. 

74. Which side rods should come off if opposite 
ones are broken? Why? 

Ans. When it is necessary to take down a partic- 
ular side rod, the rod opposite should also be taken 
down as for example ; when it is necessary to take 
down the back section side rod on one side, the back 
section side rod on the opposite side must also be taken 
down. In case the forward section side rod has to be 
taken down on one side, all side rods will then have 
to be taken down on both sides. On a consolidation 
engine the parallel rods ahead of or behind the knuckle 
joints must be taken down, in case for any reason it 
became necessary to remove any one rod. The inter- 
mediate rods do not necessarily have to be taken down 
unless they too are defective, in which case all side 
rods on both sides will have to be taken down. 

The reason for taking down parallel rods is, that 
by reason of the engine being designed at quarters 
(and the side rods left up on one side), the wheels on 
one side of the engine have a tendency to lift up, while 
the wheels on the opposite side are pulled down by the 
action of the main rod. This action taking place with 
the engine on the quarters, is very liable to cause the 
wheel without its side rod to revolve in the opposite 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 135 

direction causing the side rods to be badly bent or 
buckled, or possibly the pins to be broken off. 

75. (a) Should one of the forward tires of a ten 
wheel engine break, what must be done to bring the 
engine in? (b) If the main tire? (c) If back tire? 
What could you do to keep the flange of the good 
wheel to the rail? (d) How would you block for a 
broken trailer tire? 

Ans. In case the forward tire of a ten wheel 
engine should break it can be blocked in the following 
manner : Run the wheel with the broken tire, up on 
a wedge, as thick as the tire or a little thicker to allow 
for settlement remove the cellar if possible, and place 
a good solid oak block cut to the shape of the journal 
in place of the cellar, build up to the false, or sub- 
stitute cellar with blocking inserted between the 
pedestal binder, and the false cellar. Cut out the 
driver brake and run the engine off the block. If there 
is any doubt as to the ability of the pedestal bolt being 
able to carry the weight, chain up the equalizer near- 
est the box, with the under hung spring rigging, or 
block between the spring saddle and the frame with 
the over hung spring rigging. In case the cellar can 
not be removed, use iron blocking between pedestal 
and cellar to hold the cellar up to the journal when 
the wheel is run off the wedge. The cellar being of 
iron will cut the journal, but this is not considered 
injurious to the journal as it does not cut the bearing. 
The pedestal or binder bolt on modern engines is con- 



I36 POCKET EDITION OF 

sidered to be as strong as the frame, and is very able 
to carry this weight. 

With the front tire blocked in this manner would 
proceed with the train. In case the main tire breaks, 
and no further damage is done, would run the wheel 
with the broken tire up on a wedge as thick as the tire 
or thicker to allow for settlement, block as for the 
front tire, cut out the driver brake, reduce the weight 
in the same manner as for a front tire, and proceed. 
With the main tire blocked in this manner would not 
attempt to take any cars, would use care in passing 
over frogs and switches. 

For the back tire would block in the same 
manner as for a front, or main tire, but in addition 
would place a tie from the deck of the engine to the 
bed of the tank, chaining it to the frame of engine 
while on the wedge. Would also place a chain from 
the disabled side of the engine to some convenient 
place on the tank, to hold the flange of the good wheel 
to the rail, cut out the driver brake, and proceed with- 
out the train. 

With a broken trailer tire would proceed as fol- 
lows : Run 'the trailer up on wedge as thick as the 
tire, or thicker to allow for settlement, remove the oil 
house cover, and cellar, then block between the 
journal and the bottom of the oil house, also between 
the trailer box and the pedestal. Would then either 
chain the cross equalizer to the supplimentary frame, 
or block between the cross equalizer and the U hanger, 
would then lay a tie on the bed of the tank, and place 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 137 

one from this to the deck of the engine, would then 
while the trailer was on the wedge place a chain 
around the main frame and the tie so that when the 
wheel was run off the wedge the chain would be tight. 
This would help to carry the back end of the engine 
as well as to hold the flange of the good wheel to the 
rail. Would then proceed being careful over frogs and 
switches. 

76. If check valves were stuck up, how would 
you proceed to get them down? How with a globe 
valve attachment? 

Ans. In case the injector check was stuck up, 
would proceed to get it down in the following manner : 
Would first obtain a safe water level and maintain the 
same with the other injector. If the engine was 
equipped with a check of the globe valve variety, 
would close off the angle valve, and prime the injector. 
After the injector had been gotten to prime, would 
open the angle valve and allow the action of the 
injector to remove the scale, or whatever obstruction 
it was that had caused the check to stick up. If this 
failed to remedy, would again close the angle valve, 
and take up the cap nut on the check and see what 
was the trouble, would be governed accordingly. If 
the check was of the old style cage arrangement, would 
attempt to get it down in the following manner : First 
open the primer valve, sprinkler hose valve, and the 
frost cock if so equipped, would then tap the check 
lightly with a hammer, or piece of wood expecting the 
jar, or the vibration of the check inside of the cage to 



13^ POCKET EDITION OE 

cause it to seat. Would try this method a reasonable 
length of time, and in case the check failed to seat, 
would try pouring cold water on the check casing. This 
has been known to help seat the check. In case these 
efforts failed to cause the' check to seat, would screw 
out the frost cock (in case it was directly under the 
check), and try to seat it by using a rod or anything 
that could be introduced through the hole, would try 
to raise the check, and allow the boiler pressure to 
blow the obstruction out that was holding the check 
from its seat, thus allowing the valve to seat. Failing 
in this would reduce the pressure low on the boiler, 
and try to seat it by taking the delivery pipe down. 
Would loosen up on the connection nut, and move the 
feed pipe to on side, would then strike the spindle of 
the check lightly up with the hopes that it would raise 
from its seat long enough to allow whatever it was 
holding it up to be blown out, and the check to be 
re-seated. After trying all these remedies and failing 
would disconnect the hose from the feed pipe, allow- 
ing the steam to blow back under the tank depending 
on the other injector. If it were possible to keep a 
safe amount of water in the boiler, and handle the train 
would do so, if not would be governed by the circum- 
stances, take what cars the engine could handle under 
the circumstances and proceed. With the globe valve, 
attachment, and the check of the take down variety, it 
is possible to shut off the angle valve, and take out 
the check and remove whatever the obstruction may 
be, as well as to clean the check of the limey deposits, 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 139 

by pouring in a little car oil, and grinding it on its seat. 
A small amount of car oil worked through the 
injectors, is both beneficial to the injector and the 
check, and will in a great measure reduce the troubles 
from a sticky check. 

77. What are some of the various causes for 
pounds, while working steam? 

Ans. Some of the various causes for pounds 
while an engine is working steam are brasses loose 
in the forward, or back end of the main rod, loose 
bushings in side rods, loose knuckle joints, worn our 
driving box brasses, wedges down, guides that need 
closing in, loose piston, piston loose on the piston rod, 
broken frame, loose or lost cylinder keys, loose splice 
bolts, loose deck bolts, or expansion plate buckle, 
broken cylinder bolts, causing the pistons to strike the 
heads, broken brasses in rods and driving boxes, flat 
wheels, or the imperceptible slip, or hammer blow in 
the drivers. Heavy compression, due to an improper 
valve set. 

78. If an engine pounded when steam was shut 
off, what would it indicate? 

Ans. Some of the causes for pounds when an 
engine is shut off are : Loose spider, loose follower 
bolts, main rod too long or too short, stuck wedges, 
flat wheels, and heavy compression in the cylinders, 
due to an improper valve set, along with lost motion in 
all parts of the machinery of the engine. 

79. How would you locate a pound in driving 
boxes, rod brasses, etc.? 



140 POCKET EDITION OF 

Ans. In order to locate a pound in driving boxes, 
and rod brasses, the engine should be placed with the 
pin (on the side being tested), on the top quarter, set 
the brake, or block the wheels, and give the engine a 
very light throttle of steam. The fireman should then 
pump the engine or move the reverse lever from one 
corner of the quadrant to the other, the engineer 
can then watching see where all the lost motion is on 
that side of the engine. The other side should then 
receive a like test, and an intelligent work report 
should then be made out on the condition of the engine 
in parts as found. 

80. In what manner would proceed to give an 
engine a thorough inspection after arrival at terminal 
station? 

Ans. To give an engine a thorough inspection on 
arrival at terminal station would proceed as follows : 
Would first set the brake with a full service reduc- 
tion, get off the engine on the right side with a lighted 
torch and a hammer, commencing at the right back 
driver would inspect the wheel, tire, driving box, 
spring, hanger, equalizer, indicator plugs in the grease 
cellars, wedge, frame, rod brass, and pin, tap all bolts 
and nuts, and proceed to the next driver, and give it a 
like inspection, also the eccentric, straps, blades, link, 
top and bottom rocker arm, valve stem, and packing 
gland, on reaching the guides, give them a careful 
inspection as to bolts and nuts, close off the guide 
cups, and note the condition of the cross head, piston 
engine truck wheel, engine truck oil cup, sanders, note 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING I4I 

the engine brake piston travel, condition of the shoes, 
levers and rods, and on reaching the front end of the 
engine examine the front engine truck wheel, spring, 
equalizer, pilot, pilot braces, draw bar, pin lifter, head- 
light, hook up air signal and brakepipe hose, also notic- 
ing that the pilot is the proper height from the rail. On 
reaching the other side of the engine give it a like 
inspection, note the condition of all air piping, see that 
it is free from leaks, watch the action of the pump, see 
that the packing in the steam and air end is not blow- 
ing, notice that the pump's stroke is regular, and that 
the strainer is clean. On reaching the tank, examine 
the hose between tank and engine, draw bar, chaffing 
iron, safety chains, grab irons, steps, apron, and shovel- 
ing sheet. Examine the tank truck, wheels, oil box, 
tap the wheels to see that they are not cracked, note 
the condition of the brake rigging, rods and levers, 
piston travel, see that the air pipes are free from leaks, 
give all wheels a like inspection, and on reaching the 
rear of tender examine the grab irons, pin-lifter, draw 
bar, center casting, bolts and nuts, hook up signal line 
and brake pipe hose, and see that proper signals are 
displayed in accordance with the book of rules. Give 
the opposite side of the tender a like inspection, and 
on reaching the point from which you started, sum- 
marize the conditions of machinery, and equipment so 
that an intelligent work report can be made out on the 
condition of the engine in general as you found it. 
Climb into the cab, release the brake, hook the reverse 
lever in the center of the quadrant, open the cylinder 



142 POCKET EDITION OF 

cocks, set the independent, or straight air brake if 
engine is so equipped, leave the boiler at least two- 
thirds full of water, a good fire in the box, and at 
least ioo pounds of steam. Report any unusual con- 
ditions in the engine or its machinery to the hostlers, 
register in, make out the work report, and go to your 
rest. 

81. What is meant by friction? Upon what does 
the amount of friction depend, and what is the effect 
of introducing oil or other lubricant between frictional 
si rf aces? 

Ans. Friction is the resistance offered to bodies 
moving one over the other. The amount of friction 
depends upon the physical characteristics of the bodies, 
their weight, and the speed at which they are moving. 
Introducing oil, or other lubricants, has the effect of 
reducing friction by introducing the third body, or a 
bearing surface for the bodies to move over. This 
changes a metal friction to a fluid friction which offers 
the least resistance to the movement of bodies. 

82. What examination should be made by the 
engineer to insure successful lubrication? 

Ans. In order to insure successful lubrication, 
the engineer should examine all bearings, see that all 
cellars are properly packed, all brasses properly keyed 
up, and in a condition to receive a lubricant. He 
should also see that all oil holes are open, and that all 
oiling devices, and oil cups are properly filled, and 
adjusted. He should then supply all parts demanding 
lubrication, with a proper amount of oil or other lubri- 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 143 

cants, and little if any trouble will be experienced from 
hot bearings. 

83. Why is it bad practice to disturb the waste 
on driving boxes, while oiling the engine? 

Ans. It is bad practice to disturb the waste on 
top of the driving boxes, as it not only destroys the oil 
passages, or channels formed in the waste but is liable 
to cause the dirt and cinders on top of the waste to 
work down into the box, and aside from cutting the 
bearings, it stops up the oil holes, which soon results 
in a hot driving box, due to the fact that the oil in the 
cellar is soon used up and no other can be supplied, 
even though the engineer thinks he be giving the driv- 
ing boxes a good oiling. 

84. At what temperature does engine oil lose its 
lubricating qualities? Valve oil? 

Ans. Engine oil ignites at, or looses its lubricat- 
ing qualities, at about 250 degrees Fahn; valve oil 
ignites at, or looses its lubricating qualities, at from 
450 to 525 degrees Fahn. Some oils have a higher flash- 
ing point, but these figures are in accord with the 
general average of oil used on most railroads. 

85. Explain the principle upon which the 
injectors work. Should your injectors stop working 
on the road, what would you do? 

Ans. The injector works on the principle of an 
induced flow, or the theory of motion being able 
to overcome force. Some authorities advance the 
piston theory, while others favor the theory of the 
velocity of escaping steam (in comparison to water 



144 POCKET EDITION OF 

under the same pressure), and the additional weight 
of water being able to overcome the pressure on the 
check. The last named seems to be the general 
accepted theory. (This subject is treated in the first 
and second year's questions, and it is felt by the 
authors, that it is not necessary to repeat it here). 

In case the injectors failed while on the road, the 
engineer should proceed as follows : First protect the 
boiler by deadening the fire, and if necessary a better 
plan is to dump it. An engine can be fired up much 
easier and with less expense to a railroad company, 
than a crown sheet can be replaced. Aside from the 
danger of doing damage to the sheets of the fire box, 
the engineer who fails to protect the boiler is not only 
taking a chance on his own life, but he is also jeopardiz- 
ing the lives of others. 

After protecting the firebox sheets the engineer 
should try to find out what is -the matter with the 
injectors. He should first satisfy himself that the tank 
contains water, and that it is not too hot, for the 
injectors to work. He should then look for leaks, 
making a heater out of the injector blowing steam 
back into the tank. If there are any leaks in the 
injectors or its pipe connections, or the syphon tank 
connections, the heater will show them. In case any 
be found, they should be remedied if possible. Fail- 
ing to find any leaks he should then see that the main 
throttle valve on fountain, and injector were open. 
They may be only partly opened, and in this case the 
injector would not be getting enough steam. After 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 145 

trying these things and the injector still failed to work, 
he should take out the throttle and primer valves, run 
a wire through the nozzles. Possibly some obstruction 
in them is keeping the injector from working. Take 
out the water ram, a piece of waste might be caught 
in the passage, or the spindle broken and the valve 
held to its seat. Do not give up, have patience, and 
above all things be cool headed, think, there is always 
a remedy, first the cause and then the treatment. 
Surely a man is not entitled to or worthy of the name 
of an engineer who can not say, I did all there was 
to do, rather than say I did all I could do. Interchange 
parts, such as throttle or primer from left to right, in 
case you find either of these valves defective. 

If the injector primes the trouble is ahead of the 
steam nozzle. If it will not prime the trouble is back 
of the delivery nozzle (providing there is not a leaky 
check), possibly the primer valve passage is stopped 
up, or the primer nozzle turned up side down in the 
over flow pipe, look for these things. It will be far 
more satisfactory to say to your officials, I was 
delayed, due to some cause, rather than have an engine 
failure, and then have them point out to you the cause 
of the trouble. If after you have found the trouble, 
and it is possible for you to remedy it, do so, get suf- 
ficient water in the boiler, to fire up again and proceed. 
In case it is impossible to make repairs, or even find 
the trouble, disconnect the engine and be ready to be 
towed in. On arrival at terminal station make out a 
work report covering the defect, and an engine failure 



I46 POCKET EDITION OF 

report to the Master Mechanic, giving the facts of the 
case as you experienced them. 

86. What do you consider abuse of an engine? 

Ans. There is probably no subject pertaining to 
a locomotive on which more could be said than this. 
What some men consider abuse to an engine, evidently 
others do not. So we will treat the subject from our 
own viewpoint. 

The engineer being the responsible party, should 
insist on the engine being properly pumped, and fired. 
There is nothing more injurious to the boiler than 
improper pumping, or improper firing (from a run- 
ning stand point). Too much water in the boiler is 
the cause of more engine failures (that is in regards 
to time and tonnage), than a low steam pressure. 
High water wets the valves, destroys lubrication, cuts 
the valves and seats, destroys cylinder packing, and 
causes an unnecessary strain on the valve gear parts 
that soon tells its own story in the form of lost motion, 
worn pins and bushings, sprung blades and lose eccen- 
trics, a general wear on all of the valve gear parts. 
Improper firing, such as too heavy or too light, causes 
the steam pressure to be very much un-uniform, and 
consequently uneven expansion and contraction. 
Results, leaks in the firebox sheets, and flues, a thing 
that causes a complete engine failure, on the larger 
power of today. Some firemen are allowed to fire the 
engine most any way in order to keep up steam,- their 
method works all right until the fire in the firebox 
begins to show leaks, then the engineer begins to tell 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING Itf 

him his mistakes. He should have done this at the 
start, and by so doing would have caused himself less 
trouble, and saved, rather than have cost the company 
money. Experience is a wonderful teacher. A man 
should profit by his mistakes, but evidently some men 
never do. If the engine is pumped and fired, scientifi- 
cally, by the fireman, then the abuse to the engine 
must naturally fall upon the engineer. The engine 
should be properly lubricated, and never worked 
harder than is necessary (in the judgment of the 
engineer) to make time, and handle the train, of course 
taking into consideration the work to be done, physical 
characteristics of the road, and the train to be handled. 
Proper lubrication, and oil economy, like coal economy, 
has become to be a vital question on railroads. The 
fault of using too much oil is of just as much import- 
ance as not using enough. The results are not the same, 
from a practical standpoint, but are from the economi- 
cal. Some engineers make time, and handle tonnage 
on an oil allowance that scarcely takes another man 
out of the round house. Why is this ? There must be a 
reason. The work slips and general condition of the 
engine show practically the same, and in many cases 
the man with the oil record, as some care to term it, 
has the best engine. Some" engineers have the habit 
of allowing the reverse lever to remain low in the 
quadrant for a much longer period than others do, 
under the same conditions. This action taken from 
the practical or economical standpoint is surely abuse 
to the engine, as it not only causes the fireman to fire 



I48 lOCKET EDITION OF 

heavier, but the water is raised in the boiler, and 
being carried over to valves and cylinders washes 
away the lubrication and does great damage to the 
entire machinery of the engine. The engineer who 
practices these methods finds that the fireman has no 
control of the fire, the engine blows off, making mat- 
ters worse. Then for the next 25 or 30 miles the 
engine fails to do its work as it should all to the bad 
method of pulling out of the station. Willing neglect 
to any of the appliances of the engine, is also abuse to 
an engine. Improper work reports, or careless inspec- 
tion of the engine, before making out the report, not 
only cost the company money but are an abuse that is 
entirely uncalled for. By a careful inspection, some of 
the small things might be found that would be the 
cause for an engine failure, in case they were not 
found and reported. The proper use of the blow off 
cock is also of vital importance in the proper perform- 
ance of the engine, fewer delay reports, and stalled 
reports would be the results if the blow off cock were 
used as all men know it should be used. While it is 
not the intention of the authors to comment on the 
ability of men running engines, it is to be hoped that 
some of the things suggested as abuse to an engine 
might cause some men to try to change their methods 
of handling the engine. It is to be understood that 
we do not attempt to pose as examples in these partic- 
ular cases mentioned, but a few of the things men- 
tioned as abuse have come under our own personal 
notice. Hot bearings, injector failures, and in many 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING I49 

cases breakdowns are the direct result of some abuse 
to the parts mentioned, that can be traced to no one 
but the engine crew. The improper use of the sanders 
can be termed as abuse to the engine, allowing the 
sand from one pipe to strike the rail, and none on the 
other, slipping the engine and catching it on sand 
causes an unnecessary strain on all parts of the engine, 
especially pins and rods. This also causes an uneven 
wear on the tires, that in time causes other defects. 

87. Why should the sand from both sand pipes 
strike the rail? 

Ans. It is of the utmost importance that the sand 
from both sand pipes strike the rail at the same time 
as the sand acts as preventive to the engine slipping. 
If the sand only strikes one rail and the engine slips 
the side with the sand has a tendency to hold the 
rail and the other side slipping throws a strain on the 
journal, pins, and rods that is liable to break them off 
or do serious damage. The sand increases the adhe- 
sion between the wheel and the rail, and both wheels 
connected to the same shaft should receive the same 
treatment, in as far as their holding and drawing 
power is concerned. Sand on one side and none on 
the other causes uneven wear on the tires, that in time 
causes sheeled out tires, on one side, and this brings 
about a very slippery condition, as the wheel with the 
bad tire has not the same chance to hold the rail as the 
other. The power in the cylinders being the same 
this wheel will of course be very liable to slip. 



150 POCKET EDITION OF 

88. Suppose the whistle, or one of the safety 
valves blew out, what would you do? 

Ans. When the whistle or one of the safety 
valves blows out the engineer should at once protect 
the boiler by dumping the fire. Get both injectors 
to work, as an extra precaution while doing this. 
After the pressure had been reduced on the boiler, 
the hole can be plugged, either by screwing in a plug, 
in case one is available, or by plugging the hole with 
a wooden plug. There are several ways of making the 
plug, but the most common is to take a piece of dry 
pine about 14 inches long, and after fitting it to the 
hole, it can be held in place with a board fastened to 
the hand rails with bell cord or wire. In case it were 
possible to retain the water in the boiler, the fire may 
be rebuilt, steam raised, and the engine is then ready 
to proceed with the train. In case the water is too 
low to fire up, and there is no means at hand to refill 
the boiler, the engineer should prepare the engine to 
refill the boiler while being towed (in case this was 
considered necessary). If this was not considered 
advisable he should disconnect, in the proper manner, 
and be ready to be towed in. 

89. To what cause do you attribute the failure of 
injectors, as a general thing? What should you do to 
obviate this failure? 

Ans. The general cause for an injector failure is 
non-use. When not in use they become very much 
corroded up, due as a rule to a back leakage from the 
injector check. To obviate this failure the injectors 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING I5I 

should both be used, use one while running on the 
road, and the other one while doing siwtching. In 
case the engine is in passenger, or through freight 
service, the engine should be pumped with first one 
and then the other injector. This will keep both in 
good working order, and failures from this cause will 
be avoided. 

90. How can a disconnected tank valve be got- 
ten open without stopping? 

Ans. A disconnected tank valve may be gotten 
off its seat without stopping by making a heater out 
of the injector, and by turning the steam on strong 
the valve will be blown from its seat. The broken 
spindle of the tank valve should first be removed, so 
that when the disconnected valve is blown from its 
seat, it will fall out of the socket in which it works, 
and the trouble will not again be experienced. 

91. How would you tell the difference between 
a leaky injector throttle, check or primer? 

Ans. The difference between a leaky injector 
throttle, primer, or injector check may be determined 
in the following manner : A leaky check discharges 
both steam and water, so also does a leaky primer, 
while a leak from the injector throttle is usually dry 
steam. The difference between a leaky check throttle, 
or primer can be ascertained by putting the injector 
to work. If the leak at the overflow stops, it is an 
indication that the leak is coming from the throttle or 
check. In case the leak continues, it is the primer 
valve that is at fault. To tell whether the leak is 



152 POCKET EDITION OF 

from the throttle, or the check, shut off the valve on 
the injector branch pipe, at the fountain. If the valve 
closes tight, and the leak continues, it is coming from 
the check. If the leak stops it was coming from the 
injector throttle. The defect should be reported as 
found. 

92. Explain the construction and operation of 
the blow-off cock. 

Ans. Blow-off cocks are manufactured in several 
different styles and sizes. They differ in points of con- 
struction, and operation, but however constructed, or 
operated, they produce the same general resultsr. Some 
are operated by air, while others are operated by hand. 
The style of blow-off cock, that is operated with air at 
main reservoir .pressure, consists of a sectional brass 
cage, containing two compartments, and two sets of 
valves. Each valve is operated independently, or in con- 
junction one with the other. The body of the blow-off 
cock screws into the front sheet of the boiler, usually 
near the mud ring, this being the point at which the 
mud as a rule settles. The operation of the blow-off 
cock is as follows : When it is desired to open the 
blow-off, air from the main reservoir is admitted to the 
air chamber of the blow-off valve, coming in contact 
with the piston. The area of this piston is such that a 
pressure of 90 pounds of air will force it in against a 
boiler pressure of 200 pounds per square inch. As the 
piston moves in it comes in contact with the boiler 
valve, unseating the same, and allowing the mud and 
dirty water to be discharged from the boiler. When 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 1 53 

the air that is holding the piston in is closed off from 
the valve by the engineer, the air that is trapped in the 
piston chamber, and pipe connections, is quickly 
vented to the atmosphere through a port in the con- 
troling valve, and the boiler pressure seats the inner 
valve closing the opening from the boiler. There are 
several ways of blowing off the boiler, but the 
generally accepted way is to allow the blow-off cock 
to remain open for a few seconds, then close it. This 
action causes a whirling motion of the'water, and sucks 
or draws the mud to the opening. Upon opening the 
valve again a quantity of mud will be discharged from 
the boiler. By repeating this performance the boiler 
can be cleaned of its impurities. The hand operated 
valves should be operated in the same manner, it 
having been demonstrated by the use of a glass boiler 
that this method produces the best results, so far as 
getting mud out of boiler is concerned. 

93. Describe the manner in which the sight feed 
lubricator operates. 

Ans. The operation of sight feed lubricator is 
based on several of the well known laws of science, 
Hydostatics (or the pressure of fluids at rest), specific 
gravity of oil in comparison to water and gravitation. 
All fluids or liquids seek their own true level, water 
in comparison to oil is much heavier, then the opera- 
tion of the modern lubricator is (after being based on 
the natural laws of science) entirely dependent on an 
equal balance of pressures, and the additional weight 
of water, which the condensing chamber supplies. The 



154 POCKET EDITION OF 

lubricator feeds due to the fact that the pressures are 
equal, the pressure at the oil outlet (the choke plug) 
being the same as the pressure on the condensed steam 
or water in the condensing chamber. The liberated 
drop of oil at the feed nipple then raises to the top of 
the water in the sight feed glass by its own specific 
gravity. On reaching the choke plug it is forced 
through the hole in the plug by the jet of steam 
from the equalizing tubes. From here it gets to the 
point of lubrication, by gravity, or the fact that any 
body will roll or move down an inclined plane. 

94. (a) If the steam heat gauge showed the 
required pressure and the cars were not being heated 
properly, how would you proceed to locate the trouble ? 
(b) How does the steam heat reducing valve control 
the pressure? (c) In event of steam heat reducing 
valve being out of order, how can you heat the train 
until repairs can be made? 

Ans. In case the steam heat gauge showed the 
required pressure, and yet the train was not being 
properly heated, would proceed as follows : Would 
first see that there was a circulation of steam through 
the steam heat piping on the tender by tapping the 
indicator, or drips on the hose couplings. If steam 
showed strong at these points the trouble would be on 
the train, if not it might be that the reducing valve was 
not operating properly, the steam heat line might be 
frozen up, or possibly the angle valve on the steam heat 
line at the back end of the tender was closed. Failing 
to find this valve closed, the pipe should be felt from 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 155 

the rear of the tender to the coupling between tank 
and engine, if the pipe is hot all the way the trouble, 
is in all probabilities in the reducing valve. Because 
of the fact that the gauge shows pressure is no safe 
reason for saying that the valve is all right. 

The valve might be leaking slightly and with a 
stoppage in the pipe, the pressure would quickly 
equalize high, in many cases reaching boiler pressure. 
If the steam heat line or any of its connection was 
frozen up, it should be thawed out with a piece of 
saturated waste. If necessary these pipes should be 
disconnected between tank and engine, to facilitate in 
this work. The only way in which the engineer can 
tell that the equipment is all right is to get a good flow 
of steam through the steam heat line. 

In case the defect is in the steam heat reducing 
valve, the supply valve may be blocked open and the 
pressure regulated with the fountain valve. Care 
should be exercised to prevent getting too great a 
pressure in the steam heat pipes, as there is danger of 
bursting hose, and possibly the steam pipes inside 
the cars, which would be very liable to injure persons 
in the car. 

95. If the wrist pin, crank pin and driving axle 
on one side, are in the same straight line, how much 
power does that side exert to turn the driving wheel? 
How then is the engine kept going? 

Ans. When the wrist pin, crank pin, and driving 
axle are in a direct line or parallel with the piston, the 
power exerted upon piston is the same as it is any 



I56 POCKET EDITION OF 

other time, with the same opening of the valve. The 
same area of the piston is exposed, at this time that 
is at any other time, but the force is exerted in a direct 
straight line, and that side of the engine has no power 
to move itself. 

The engine is kept in motion due to the fact that 
the pin on the other engine is placed on the quarter, 
or at right angles with the engine on the dead center. 
In this position the rod has its greatest leverage, and 
the engine that is on the center is carried by this 
point until its rod has assumed an angle, when it does 
work equal to the expansion of the confined steam in 
the cylinder. The work performed by a locomotive 
(even though it consists of two separate engines, set 
at different quarters, on the same shaft, or journal) 
for a certain time in each stroke falls upon one of the 
two engines. 

96. Describe the principle of the bell ringer, and 
how can it be adjusted? 

Ans. The bell ringer is an air or steam operated 
engine, connected by a suitable piston and crank, to 
the end of the bell shaft. The engine consists of a 
cylinder, and a double piston, on the same piston rod. 
One piston acts as the valve, the other is the medium 
through which the admitted, and confined air (or 
steam), is allowed to expend its energy in the direc- 
tion the piston is to operate. This action causes the 
bell to swing the distance of the lift on the piston and 
the eccentricity of the crank. As the piston moves 
upward it carries with it the valve, cutting off the 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 157 

admission of air and after the air has expended its 
energy the weight of the bell forces the piston down 
again to the bottom of the cylinder, where it again 
comes in contact with a fresh supply of air, and is 
again forced upward. This action is entirely auto- 
matic, so long as air is supplied to the bell ringer. 

The air is exhausted from the cylinder of the bell 
ringer, through a very small hole, but before it is all 
exhausted the weight of the bell forces the piston 
down trapping a certain amount of air, forming the 
cushion, for the piston in its cylinder. 

The adjustment of the bell ringer is brought about 
by increasing or shortening the length of the bell 
ringer piston. This is accomplished by an adjusting 
screw, on the bell crank. To increase the lift on the 
bell, slack off on the lock nut and screw the bolt down. 
To decrease the lift screw screw the bolt out and in 
both cases after making the adjustment tighten up on 
the lock nut. The bell ringer proper needs but very 
little lubrication, the friction of the pistons in cylinder 
being very little. Oil has a very detrimental effect 
on the bell ringer, in fact in cold weather, as it causes 
it to become gummed up, and its action then is very 
sluggish. The bell itself should be oiled every four 
hours, when in constant service. 

97. What is superheated steam? 

Ans. Superheated steam is steam heated to a 
higher temperature than which it is generated at, or 
steam from which all moisture has been evaporated by 



I58 POCKET EDITION OF 

reason of being placed in contact with a greater heat 
than the boiler contains. 

98. How is it superheated, and what benefits are 
derived from it? 

Ans. It is superheated by a system of return 
flues, connected to the nigger head and steam pipes in 
the smoke box. The steam, after the throttle valve is 
opened, circulates through these flues, coming in con- 
tact with the firebox gases, is heated to a very high 
temperature before it enters the cylinders of the 
engine. 

The benefits derived, are, the higher the tempera- 
ture the more expansive qualities the steam contains, 
less condensation, and a greater degree of heat energy, 
the medium through which the cylinders of an engine 
are made to perform a work. 

99. How many miles should an engine run to a 
pint of engine oil? Valve oil, and how would you oil 
an engine to effect the greatest economy? 

Ans. An engine should make from 50 to 100 miles 
to the pint of engine oil. It should make from 75 to 125 
miles to the pint of valve oil. An engine in freight 
service is allowed the greatest amount of oil, on 
account of the tonnage handled, and the time on the 
road. Engines in passenger service make the greatest 
number of miles .but under the more favorable con- 
ditions. 

The proper manner of oiling an engine varies 
according to the class of service the engine is in. On 
through passenger, or freight runs the method differs 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 1 59 

from local passenger or freight runs. The best method 
is to make the first oiling a very careful one, supply 
each bearing with a liberal amount, but do not waste 
it by pouring on so much that the cups are run over, 
and the oil runs off on the ground, as this is the 
waste of which the companies complain. After the first 
oiling the engine should receive a small amount at 
stops. Whenever necessary make a careful inspection 
of all parts, and when taken in time a bearing that is 
warming up can be cooled with a smaller amount of 
oil than if allowed to become hot. Of course on runs 
where stops are few r and far between, a greater amount 
of oil must be supplied at each oiling than on runs that 
make local stops. The best results would of course be 
obtained by oiling light, and often, but in many cases 
this method can not be complied w r ith. The greatest 
secret in the successful handling of the engine from 
this standpoint does not lie in the amount, or manner 
of applying the oil, but rather the condition of bear- 
ings, and pocking boxes to receive it. Oil poured in 
oil holes that are stopped up, or a lubricant of any 
name or nature supplied to a bearing improperly keyed 
up produces no results. 

All parts of the engine should receive a careful 
inspection in this regard before supplying each part 
with the proper amount of oil to produce the results 
for which the oil is intended (lessening of friction). 

ioo. On monthly coal report, what is meant by 
miles run per ton of coal, and what by pounds of coal 
per ioo ton miles? 



l60 POCKET EDITION OF 

Ans. Miles run per ton of coal means the miles 
made by the engine with a train to the ton of coal. 
By pounds of coal per ioo ton miles is meant the 
pounds of coal used to haul I ton ioo miles, or to haul 
ioo tons i mile. 

THIRD YEAR AIR BRAKE QUESTIONS. 

i. Trace the air through the air brake system. 

Ans. The air used in the air brake system enters 
the air inlets of the 8-inch, and the strainers of all 
other sizes, and styles of pumps, where it comes in 
contact with the piston, and is compressed to a greater 
pressure than atmospheric pressure. Being forced by 
the discharge valves in all styles and sizes of pumps 
it enters the discharge pipe, and then to the main 
reservoir. From the main reservoir it starts on its 
travels to the several parts of the air brake system. 
From the main reservoir the air flows to the red hand 
of the duplex air gauge, the pump governor, the face 
of the rotary in the engineer's brake valve, the face 
of all valves that operate main reservoir pressure, 
such as (bell ringer, air sanders, blow-off cock, trac- 
tion increaser, headlight entinguisher, pin lifter, 
graphite lubricator, air flanger, ditcher, and all such 
appliances that are operated by main reservoir air). 
It also flows to the main reservoir side of the air 
signal, reducing valve, the straight air reducing valve, 
and the main reservoir side of the slide valve feed 
valve. Regardless of the position of the engineer's 
brake valve, main reservoir air always surrounds the 
rotary in the engineer's brake valve (unless the cut-out 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING l6l 

cock in the main reservoir pipe leading to the brake 
valve is closed)-. With the handle of the engineer's 
brake in full release, the air flows through the large 
port in the rotary, or port A, in the blind cavity B, 
in the rotary seat, under bridge W, of the rotary, into 
cavity C, of the rotary, from here it enters the direct 
application and supply port, leading to the brake pipe, 
also on the underneath side of the equalizing piston 
(which forms the train line exhaust valve). At the 
same time the brake pipe is charging, chamber D, or 
the cavity over the equalizing piston, and the little 
drum or equalizing reservoir is being charged in two 
ways, through the running feed port, and preliminary 
port, and the equalizing port from cavity C, the air 
also flowing to the black hand of the duplem* air gauge. 
As the air flows through the brake pipe, angle cocks, 
and hose connections, it comes in contact with the 
crossover pipe leading to the triple valve, it forces the 
triple piston to release or charging position, and enters 
the feed groove, charging up the auxiliary reservoir to 
the same pressure contained in the brake pipe. With 
the handle of the engineer's brake valve in running 
position the air flows through the running feed port 
in the rotary and the rotary seat, past the excess pres- 
sure valve in the D8, and the feed valve attachment of 
all styles of brake valves, into the direct application 
and supply port to the brake pipe. From the brake 
pipe the air backs up into cavity C, of the rotary, 
charging chamber D, through the equalizing port from 
cavity C. The air takes the same course through the 



l62 POCKET EDITION OF 

brake pipe in running position that it does in full 
release charging the auxiliary in the same manner. 
With the handle of the brake valve on lap, all ports are 
blank, and all pressures are separated by the rotary in 
the engineer's brake valve. With the duplex governor 
in freight equipment, the low pressure head is cut out 
of service, and the maximum pressure head takes con- 
trol of the pump, stopping it at 120 pounds main 
reservoir pressure. (The manner in which the air 
flows through the governor will be taken up later). 
When the handle of the engineer's brake valve is 
placed in service position, the air in chamber D is 
allowed to escape to the atmosphere, through the pre- 
liminary port, in the rotary seat, the elongated groove 
in the rotary and its seat, to the direct application 
emergency exhaust to the atmosphere. The pressure 
being taken off the top of the equalizing piston, the 
brake pipe pressure raises the piston up unseating the 
brake pipe exhaust valve (which is in reality part of 
the equalizing piston). 

The brake pipe pressure is allowed to discharge 
until the pressure in chamber D, being the greater, 
forces the piston to its seat. As brake pipe pressure 
begins to discharge, the pressure in the auxiliary reser- 
voir forces the triple piston to set position, closing the 
feed groove, the exhaust port, and opening the gradu- 
ating valve and port, through the medium of the triple 
piston and slide valve. The pressure in the auxiliary 
reservoir flows to the brake cylinder until such time 
as the pressure in the brake pipe is greater than in the 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 163 

auxiliary, when the triple piston moves to lap position, 
closing the graduating valve and port. On a further 
reduction from chamber D the same performance takes 
place, until such time as equalization takes place, when 
the pressures in chamber D, brake pipe, auxiliary, and 
brake cylinder, are all equal, or the same. When it is 
wished to release the brake pipe pressure must be 
raised higher than the pressure in the auxiliary this 
pressure forces the triple pistons to release or charging 
position, opening the feed groove in the triple piston 
bushing, allowing air to flow into the auxiliary, and 
closing the graduating valve and port, opening the 
triple valve exhaust port allowing the air in the brake 
cylinder to flow to the atmosphere. With the handle 
of the engineer's brake valve in emergency position, 
air from the brake pipe is quickly vented to the atmos- 
phere, through the direct application, and supply port, 
cavity C, of the rotary, and the direct application 
emergency exhaust port, at the same time the pressure 
in chamber D is reduced through the preliminary 
port, and the elongated groove, in the rotary valve, to 
the direct application emergency exhaust port. This 
heavy brake pipe reduction causes a quick application 
of the brakes, the triple piston moves down and com- 
presses the graduating spring, the removed corner of 
the slide valve allows auxiliary pressure to unseat the 
emergency piston, the pressure in chamber Y is 
quickly vented to the brake cylinder, the brake pipe 
pressure then unseats the brake pipe check, and brake 
pipe, and auxiliary pressures flow to the brake cylin- 



164 POCKET EDITION OF 

der through their respective ports until equalization 
takes place. 

The brakes are released in the same manner, 
restoring the amount of the reduction, plus one pound 
to overcome the auxiliary pressure, and the frictional 
resistance of the triple piston and slide valve. The air 
in the brake cylinder is vented td the atmosphere 
through the triple exhaust port. 

2. What defects in the brake valve will destroy 
excess in running position? 

Ans. The things that will destroy excess in run- 
ning position are a leaky excess pressure valve, 
broken spring, valve or seat cut, with the D8 brake 
valve. Cut rotary valve or seat with either brake 
valve, leaky gasket 32, or feed valve gasket 2,7, or any 
one of several defects, in the feed valve attachment 
with the G6, equipment. 

3. (a) About how long should it take to reduce 
chamber D, pressure from 70 pounds to 50 pounds, 
pounds in service application? (b) If the reduction 
from chamber D, is too slow, what might be the 
trouble? (c) If too rapid? 

Ans. It should take from 5 to 6 seconds to reduce 
chamber D pressure 20 pounds in service application 
position, with all styles of brake valves. 

If the reduction from chamber D is too slow it 
may be caused by a partially closed, or stopped up 
preliminary port, a leak equalization piston packing 
ring, a leak in gasket 32. 

If the reduction is too rapid it may be caused 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING l6$ 

by a chamber D leak, either at the gauge connections, 
the equalizing reservoir, or its pipe connections, the 
equalizing reservoir partly filled up with water, the 
restricted passage in the pipe connections to the 
reservoir partly stopped up, or the preliminary port in 
the rotary seat might be too large, either by accident 
or design. 

4. Explain the effect of a cut rotary valve or seat. 
Ans. A leaky rotary cut valve or seat is a very 

dangerous thing even when known, as it not only 
causes pressures to equalize on lap, destroys excess 
in running position, but the main reservoir pressure 
leaking into the brake pipe causes the head brakes to 
release. This, aside from being liable to break the 
train in two, takes from the engineer a considerable 
part of the holding power of the train brakes, unless 
properly handled. 

5. Do you consider a leaky rotary or seat danger- 
ous? (b) How would you do breaking with a leaky 
rotary? (c) How would you test for a leaky rotary 
in a good practical way? 

Ans. A leaky rotary valve or seat is dangerous 
even when known, as it not only robs the engineer of 
the sensitiveness of the brake application, but the 
dangers from breaking the train in two, as well as 
not being able to stop (if not properly handled), are 
very great. 

In order to do breaking (good breaking in the 
fullest sense of the word can not be done), with a 
leaky rotary. The first reduction should be sufficient 



l66 POCKET EDITION OF 

to get the pistons by the leakage grooves (depending 
on the length of the train), the black hand should then 
be kept gradually falling, or the brake pipe exhaust 
should be kept open until the train stops, or it is safe 
under the existing conditions to attempt to release. 

There are several different ways of testing for a 
leaky rotary valve, further test valve in service or seat, 
one of which is to make (with the pressures charged 
up) a reduction of 10 or 15 pounds, lap the valve, if the 
black hand on the air gauge crawls up and the brakes 
whistle off, it is a sign of a leaky rotary. Another is to 
close the cut-out cock in the brake pipe underneath 
the brake valve, lap the brake valve, if the brake pipe 
exhaust unseats and discharges air it is a sign of a 
leaky rotary. The amount of air being discharged 
suggests the nature of the defect. Still another (yet 
most too sensitive to be practical) is to drain the brake 
system, place the brake valve on lap, and start the 
pump. If air is leaking by the rotary valve bubbles 
will show in a pail of water with the brake pipe hose 
(angle cock open) placed therein. 

A leak that would affect the operation of the 
brakes could be told by holding a lighted torch to the 
open brake pipe hose. Any of these methods if closely 
followed will satisfy the engineer as to the nature of 
the leak, and a report should be made out covering the 
defect found. 

6. What defects will cause a blow at the triple 
valve exhaust port? (b) What will cause a triple to 
go to emergency position during a service reduction? 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 167 

Ans. There are several defects that will cause a 
blow at the triple exhaust, a cut slide valve or seat, 
broken slide valve, slide valve held from its seat by 
gum or dirt, on any and all styles of triples. A leaky 
cut-out cock with the old style plain triple. With the 
quick action, a leaky B pipe or auxiliary tube, rubber 
seated valve, body gasket 15, or the gasket between 
the triple valve and the auxiliary, in freight equip- 
ment, and gasket 25, between the triple and the brake 
cylinder head in passenger equipment. 

The things that cause a triple valve to go to 
emergency position during a service reduction are : A 
sticky or dirty triple piston and slide valve with all 
styles of triple valves, a weak or broken graduating 
spring, in a train of from 5 to 7 cars, a stuck graduat- 
ing valve, or broken graduating pin, will sometimes 
cause a triple to set in emergency during a service 
reduction, depending on the tightness of the fit of the 
triple piston packing ring, and the amount of leakage 
by the emergency piston. If the packing ring be good, 
and the emergency piston tight, the triple will set in 
emergency with the graduating valve defective. Heavy 
brake pipe leaks during a service reduction will cause 
quick action. Too large a preliminary port, with a train 
of from one to three cars will also cause quick action, 
or emergency, during a service reduction. There are 
many other defects, of a combination nature, but they 
are most too complicated to be practical, so they are 
not mentioned here. 

7. What are the functions of the pump governor: 



l68 POCKET EDITION OP 

Ans. The functions of the pump governor ar* 
to automatically control the air pump. The governor 
consists of a suitable brass body, of two compart- 
ments, one part contains the regulating portion, the 
other the steam valve and piston. Its operation is 
brought about by pressure overcoming a tension 
spring. The spring or regulating portion controls the 
amount of pressure desired, and the piston and valve 
cause the flow of steam to be automatically cut-off 
from the pump when the tension of the spring is over- 
come by pressure. The operation of the governor in so 
far as it stops, and allows the pump to resume work, 
is entirely automatic. 

8. (a) If you detect air blowing out of the hole 
in the neck of the governor, what does it denote? (b) 
At the hole in the spring casing? 

Ans. In case air is detected blowing out of the 
hole in the neck of t«he governor, it denotes that the 
pin valve is held from its seat, either by reason of the 
fact that the tension of the regulating spring has been 
overcome, or by reason of gum or dirt, cut valve or 
seat, there is a leak of air by the pin valve and out 
of the hole in the neck of the governor. 

In case air is detected blowing out of the hole in 
the spring casing, it denotes that there is a leak by the 
diaphram, in the regulating portion of the governor. 
This leak would have no noticable effect (except a 
waste of air), so long as the hole in the spring casing 
is not stopped up. 

9. (a) What might prevent the governor from 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING l6q 

shutting off the steam, when the maximum pressure is 
obtained? (b) What would you do to fix a governor 
when it becomes inoperative? 

Ans. In case the governor fails to shut off the 
supply of steam to the pump it may be caused by some 
of the following defects : The air pipe leading to the air 
chamber in the governor may be broken off, stopped 
up, strainer in this pipe stopped up, the restricted 
passage in the pipe stopped up, or too great a tension 
on the regulating spring, the hole in the spring casing 
stopped up, with a leak by the diaphram, the pin valve 
broken off and held to its seat, the restricted passage 
in the neck of the governor leading to the governor 
piston stopped up, no packing rings on the governor 
piston, the governor piston stuck open in its bushing, 
a leak by the steam valve stem with the drip pipe 
stopped up or frozen up, the steam valve held from its 
seat by scale, steam valve broken, or the valve or seat 
cut. Any of these defects will fail to allow the govern- 
or to shut off the supply of steam to the pump when 
the maximum pressure has been attained. 

In case the governor becomes inoperative, the 
pressure that controls the governor should be reduced 
the governor cleaned, or ^the defect located and 
repaired. In case it was impossible to make the 
repairs, the governor should be cut out of service by 
placing a blind gasket in the pipe leading to it, and 
the other governor adjusted to the desired pressure. 
In case of only one governor, and it out of service, the 
pressure will have to be controlled by throttling the 



1^0 POCKET EDITION OF 

pump. The most usual causes for failures in the 
operation of the governor, are dirt, and by cleaning it 
will again be put in a working condition. 

10. (a) What would you do if the governor 
would allow you but 30 pounds of air in spite of all you 
did to fix it? (b) What causes gum and dirt in the 
governor? (c) Should a pump be run over ash pits? 

Ans. If after reducing the pressure, cleaning and 
repairing the governor, it would not allow the pump 
to get over 30 pounds of air, would cut it out of service, 
and throttle the pump to prevent getting too high a 
pressure. 

Gum and dirt in the governor are caused by exces- 
sive oiling of the air end of the pump, running the 
pump over ash or cinder pits, using the brake valve in 
emergency position, with the main reservoir partly 
rilled with water and rust. 

The air pump should not be run over ash pits as 
the fine particles of dust are drawn into the strainer 
of the pump, stopping up the strainer, and after being 
deposited in the main reservoir, work back into the 
entire air brake system, clogging strainers, cutting 
valves and seats, so that they cannot maintain, and 
separate their pressures. 

11. What defect of the governor will cause it to 
interfere with pump, thus preventing the pump from 
working ? 

Ans. Some of the defects in the governor which 
prevent the pump from working are a weak or broken 
spring, a broken pin valve, pin valve held from its seat 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING I?I 

by gum or dirt, valve or seat cut to the extent of 
causing a leak, the hole in the neck of the governor 
stopped up, with a leak by the pin valve, thus holding 
the governor piston closed, the piston stuck in its 
bushing (closed). These defects will prevent the 
pump from working. 

12. If short of air, how can distinguish quickly 
if the trouble is with the pump or the governor? 

Ans. If the air gauge shows that the system is 
short of air it can be ascertained whether the trouble 
is in the pump or the governor, by reducing the pres- 
sure that controls the governor. If the pump goes to 
work, and stops again at the same pressure, the trouble 
is in the governor. If the pump does not go to work, the 
trouble is then in all probabilities in the pump. 

13. If the pump should stop before the maximum 
pressure is attained, what should you do to get it to 
work again, and where look for defects? 

Ans. If the air pump should stop before the 
maximum pressure was attained it should first be 
ascertained whether the trouble was with the pump Or 
the governor, and then be governed by whatever 
defect was found. Presuming that the trouble was in 
the pump and not in the governor, the first thing to do 
would be to satisfy yourself that the pump was get- 
ting a good head of steam. This can be done by open- 
ing the channel drain cocks, or disconnecting the steam 
pipe between the governor, and the pump. This will 
satisfy you as to the volume of steam the pump is 
getting. After finding that the pump is getting suf- 



IJ2 POCKET EDITION OF 

ficient steam, and oil, should next find the location of 
the piston in the cylinder, so as to enable himself in 
locating the defect. Take off the cap nut on the bot- 
tom of the air cylinder, and insert a piece of wire or a 
stick to find the location of the piston. In case the 
piston had stopped at the bottom of the cylinder, would 
reason that the trouble was in some of the following 
things : The nuts might be off the bottom head, thus 
preventing the piston from completing its stroke, the 
button might be broke of the reversing valve rod, or 
the packing rings gone on the large end of the differen- 
tial piston, the tappet plate on the piston might be 
loose or gone, in which case there would be nothing for 
the reversing rod to engage, consequently the reversing 
slide valve could not be pulled down, and no steam 
would be admitted back of the large end of the 
differential piston. 

If the pump stopped with -the piston on its up 
stroke, it would be reasonable to suppose that some of 
the following defects had taken place. The shoulder 
worn off the reversing valve rod, the tappet plate loose 
or gone, keeper nut loose on the small end of the 
differential piston, preventing the piston from com- 
pleting its stroke, or the packing rings badly worn, or 
broken on the differential piston, loose studs on the 
reversing plate, preventing the piston from completing 
its stroke. Would be governed by whatever defect 
found, make what repairs possible and proceed. 

14. (a) How fast should a pump be run? (b) 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 173 

Under what conditions will a pump compress air in 
one direction only? 

Ans. An air pump should be run from 60 to 70 
single strokes, 120 to 140 double strokes, per minute. 
The best results being obtained at this speed as the air 
cylinders do not have time to fill if the pump be run 
faster than this, soon the pump heats and little if any 
air will then be pumped. The air pump should never 
be run any faster than necessary to maintain the 
required pressure. 

An air pump will compress air in one direction 
only with any of the following defects : When the oil 
cup cover is gone, and the cup is open, when the piston 
rod packing is blowing (air end), when the gasket 
around the heads are leaking, when the cap nut is gone 
off the bottom head of the pump, or when any one of 
the receiving or discharge valves are leaking or broken. 

15. (a) How does water get into the air brake 
system? (b) What parts should be drained, and how 
often? (c) What damage does water do? 

Ans. The water in the air brake system gets in by 
way of the strainer, and a small percentage by the 
piston rod packing. About 95 per cent, gets in by way 
of the strainer, being squeezed out of the atmosphere. 
About 5 per cent, gets in from the steam end of the 
pump, coming down the piston, which works equally in 
both cylinders. 

All parts that contain water should be drained, at 
least once during a round trip, or oftener in cold and 
freezing weather. Such parts as the mam reservoir, 



174 POCKET EDITION OF 

equalizing reservoir, brake-pipe, auxiliary reservoirs, 
all drains and wells, and the triple valves at least once 
a week, in cold and freezing weather. 

Water in the air brake system takes up valuable 
air space, causes rust to form, the rust working back 
into the air brake system, clogs strainers, cuts valves 
and seats, thus making it impossible for them to 
properly maintain and separate their pressures. A 
poor working system is the resets. In winter the 
water freezes causing pipes to burst, and untold delays, 
all due to the fact that the parts containing water was 
not drained. 

1 6. How much brake pipe pressure should be car- 
ried on any engine? 

Ans. The standard brake pipe pressure on both 
freight and passenger is 70 pounds. The high speed 
pressures on passenger range from 90 to no pounds. 
Schedule U pressures are 70 and 90 pounds, and 
they are used in districts with very heavy grades, the 
lower pressure being used going up, and the higher 
pressure coming down. (Used in freight service.) 

17. How is brake pipe pressure regulated with 
each brake valve? 

Ans. With the old style (D8) brake valve, brake 
pipe pressure is regulated with the pump governor. 
With the new styles (F or G6, or ET equipments) it is 
regulated with the feed valve attachment, when the 
proper main reservoir pressure is maintained, and the 
handle of the engineer's brake valve is carried in run- 
ning position. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 175 

1 8. (a) What is excess pressure, and when 
should you try to carry it? (b) What is excess pres- 
sure used for? (c) How much excess should you carry 
with each brake valve? (d) How do you regulate 
excess with each brake valve? (e) Why a different 
amount for freight than passenger? 

Ans. Excess pressure is pressure carried in the 
main reservoir, over and above the pressure in the 
brake pipe. It should be carried at all times except 
when charging trains at terminals, releasing brakes, or 
descending long grades, the place for it then is back 
in the brake pipe. 

Excess pressure is used to make certain a rapid 
recharge of brake pipe, and auxiliaries, a prompt 
release of brakes, and to operate all appliances on the 
engine, that are operated with main reservoir pressure 
(such as the bell ringer, air sanders, blow-off cock, 
headlight extinguisher, pin lifter, air flanger, ditcher, 
traction increaser, and all such devices), without inter- 
fering with the brake pipe pressure. 

With the old style (D8), should carry 15 on 
passenger and 20 pounds on freight. With the single 
governor, of the (F and G6, low pressure head of 
the Duplex, Schedule U, and excess pressure head of 
the ET equipment), should carry 20 pounds. With the 
high pressure head, or maximum pressure head of the 
Duplex would carry 50 pounds. With the Duplex on 
the high speed 10 pounds should be carried. 

With the D8 brake valve excess pressure is regu- 
lated with the excess pressure spring and plug. 



I76 POCKET EDITION OF 

Increasing the length of the spring gives a higher 
excess, shortening the spring, or relieving the- tension 
decreases the amount of excess to be carried. With 
the F and G6 brake valves, excess is regulated with 
the pump governor, when the feed valve is properly 
adjusted. 

Increasing the tension on the regulating spring, 
gives a higher excess. Decreasing the tension on the 
regulating spring, decreases the amount of excess to 
e carried. With the ET equipment, the low pres- 
sure, or excess pressure head is automatic in its opera- 
tion, while the maximum pressure head is adjusted the 
same as other styles of governors. The low pressure 
or excess pressure head has an adjusting screw, but 
after the spring has a tension of 20 pounds placed on 
it, it should not be changed, as it by its points in con- 
struction takes care of the amount of excess in running 
position, regardless of the brake pipe pressure. 

The reason that a larger volume of excess is car- 
ried on freight than passenger is that there is a larger 
volume of air .to control, more auxiliaries to recharge, 
and more difficult brakes to release. Due to the un- 
even piston travel, which causes some brake cylin- 
ders to equalize very high with their auxiliaries, while 
others equalize quite low. The passenger brake equip- 
ment is kept in much better repair, and the trains 
never reach in length, any comparison to the freight 
train. 

19. (a) How can you distinguish between the 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 177 

different kinds of triples? (b) How should each be 
cut out of service? 

Ans. The different kinds of triples are dis- 
tinguished by their points in construction. The old 
style plain triple is a smaller triple in proportion to 
the size of others, and the cut-out cock is placed in 
the body of the triple. The new plain, or special driver 
brake triple is a large triple having larger ports and 
pipe connections, and the cut-out cock is placed in the 
cross-over pipe leading to the triple. The quick action 
triple is a much larger triple, and differs materially in 
points of construction. It has all the features of the 
plain, and in addition thereto the quick action feature, 
which is the means by which they are distinguished 
from other kinds of valves. This feature consists of a 
cast body fastened to the side of the body of the triple, 
and contains the emergency piston, rubber seated 
valve, and brake pipe check. 

The type K freight triple looks much like the older 
style of quick action triple, but aside from the per- 
formance of its duties being different, it has a dis- 
tinguishing mark on the outside of the cage known as 
the fin. This fin is cast on the body of the triple, near 
where it bolts to the auxiliary. The triple possesses 
all the features of the ordinary quick action, and in 
addition features known as retarded release, quick 
service, and uniform recharge. 

The type L passenger triple is a much different 
triple, both in appearance and operation. The body 
of the triple has a pop valve attached, something that 



I78 POCKET EDITION OF 

no other triple but the L possesses. In its operation it 
has all the features of the old style passenger triple 
and additional ones known as retarded release, quick 
service, uniform, or rapid recharge, providing the sup- 
plimentary reservoir is in operation, in which case it 
has several advantageous features (not here explained). 
When this reservoir is cut in service, in connection 
with the L triple, the schedule is known as the LN 
Schedule. 

All other triples except the old style plain, are cut 
out of service by turning the cut-out cock in the pipe 
leading to the triple. When cut in the handle of the 
cut-out cock should stand at right angles to the pipe. 
When cut-out the handle of the cut-out cock should 
stand parallel with the pipe. To make certain of the 
triple either being cut-in or cut-out, the groove in the 
plug of the cut-out cock should be observed. It should 
stand crosswise of the pipe cut-out, and lengthwise of 
the pipe cut-in. 

20. Where is compressed air stored, and what is 
each pressure used for? 

Ans. The compressed air used in the air brake 
system is stored in the main reservoir, brake-pipe, 
chamber D, auxiliary reservoir, straight air piping and 
straight air brake valve, signal line piping, and cham- 
bers A and B in the signal valve, chamber Y, water 
pressure drum under Tourist and Pullman cars, and 
in the brake cylinder, when a brake application has 
been made. The pressure in the main reservoir is used 
to furnish air for all other parts of the air brake system. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 179 

The main reservoir being the store house as it were 
to the entire air brake system. Main reservoir pres- 
sure is used to charge brake pipe and auxiliaries, 
release the brakes, and operate all appliances on the 
engine that are operated with compressed air. 

Brake pipe pressure is the medium through which 
the auxiliaries are charged, the brakes applied and 
released. 

Chamber D pressure is the pressure that holds the 
equalizing piston to its seat, operates the black hand 
of the air gauge, and makes it possible for the engineer 
to make light gradual service reduction, in an applica- 
tion of the brakes. 

Auxiliary pressure is the pressure that is vented 
to the brake cylinders during a brake application, and 
also the place from which pressure is taken to charge 
the water pressure drum in Pullman and Tourist cars. 

Straight air pressure is the pressure that is sup- 
plied to the brake cylinders in a straight air brake 
application. 

Signal line pressure is the medium through which 
signals, are transmitted from the train to the engine 
crew. 

Chamber Y pressure is the pressure that holds the 
brake pipe check to its seat, and helps to operate the 
quick action parts of a quick action triple, in emer- 
gency applications. 

Water pressure, is the pressure used to force the 
water into washbowls, and -toilet necessities, in the 
Pullman and Tourists cars. 



l80 POCKET EDITION OF 

Brake cylinder pressure is the pressure used to 
develop power in the brake cylinders, forcing the 
piston out, and it in turn being connected with rods, 
levers, beams, and shoes, produce the friction between 
the shoe and the wheel, which brings the vehicle to a 
slow down, or a stop. 

21. Where do the different pressures begin and 
end? 

Ans. The pressures, in the air brake system 
begin and end as follows : Main reservoir pressure 
begins at the discharge valve of all styles of pumps, 
and ends at the red hand of the duplex air gauge, the 
pump governor, the face of all valves operating 
appliances operated by main reservoir pressure, the 
further walls of the main reservoir, and its pipe con- 
nections and the face of the rotary in the engineer's 
brake valve. 

Brake pipe pressure begins at bridge W, in full 
release, and on the brake pipe side of the excess pres- 
sure valve and feed valve, in running position, and 
ends on the underneath side of the equalizing piston, 
the walls of the brake pipe, angle cocks, hose connec- 
tions, brake pipe side of the triple piston, chamber Y, 
in the quick action triple valve, the conductors valve, 
in coach, or way car, the air gauge in way car, and at 
the first closed angle cock in the train. 

Chamber D pressure begins at the preliminary, 
and equalizing ports, in full release, and at the equaliz- 
ing ports in running position, and ends on top of the 
equalizing piston, the black hand of the air gauge, the 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING l8l 

further walls of the little drum, or equalizing reser- 
voir, and its pipe connections. 

Auxiliary reservoir pressure begins on the auxil- 
iary side of the triple piston, and ends at the face of the 
slide valve in the triple valve, the auxiliary side of the 
water pressure valve in the Pullman and Tourist cars, 
and the further walls of the auxiliary and its pipe-con- 
nections. 

Straight air pressure begins on the straight air 
side of the straight air reducing valve, and ends in the 
straight air piping, and the face of the application 
valve, in the straight air brake valve. 

Signal line pressure begins on the signal line side 
of the signal line reducing valve, and ends in the walls 
of the signal line piping, chambers A and B, in the 
signal valve, the signal line side of the car discharge 
valve, and the first closed angle cock in the signal line. 

Chamber Y pressure begins on chamber Y side of 
the brake pipe check, and ends in the cavity between 
the rubber seated valve and the brake pipe check. 

Waterpressure begins on the water pressure side, 
of the water pressure valve, and ends at the further 
walls of the water pressure drum, and on the water in 
the tank. 

Brake cylinder pressure begins at the graduating 
valve and port, in an automatic application, and at the 
application valve in the straight air brake valve in a 
straight air application, and ends in the walls of the 
brake cylinder, and its pipe connections, the brake pipe 
side of the double check, the brake pipe check in the 



1 82 pocket edition of 

triple valve, the red hand of the brake cylinder gauge, 
the brake cylinder side of the pop valve, the straight 
air side of the double check, and the release valve in a 
straight air application. Also the brake cylinder side 
of the high speed reducing valve, when one is in use. 

22. (a) How rapidly does an auxiliary charge? 
(b) When should you bear this in mind particularly? 

Ans. The feed grooves in the triple valve are so 
proportioned that an auxiliary would charge from o 
to 70 pounds in 70 seconds a constant pressure of 
70 pounds being maintained in the brake pipe. But 
owing to the usual condition of feed grooves and 
strainers, and the fact that a constant pressure of 70 
pounds cannot be maintained in the brake pipe, it 
takes from 2 to 2 1-2 minutes to charge an auxiliary 
on a short train, and from 8 to 10 minutes on a long 
train. 

The engineer should bear this in mind when charg- 
ing trains at terminals, before trying the brakes, before 
releasing to recharge in a two application stop, and 
before releasing to recharge on a grade. He should 
bear in mind the length of time it takes to restore the 
amount of air he has taken out of the auxiliary, as the 
pressure in the auxiliaries is the pressure that sets the 
brake. 

23. Does the black hand of the air gauge show 
brake pipe pressure at all times? 

Ans. The black hand of the air gauge shows 
chamber D pressure, but the brake pipe pressure is the 
same, when charged up and equalized, in full release, 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 1 83 

running, and on lap positions, when equalized, at the 
beginning, and ending of the brake pipe exhaust, in 
service applications. But does not during the brake 
pipe exhaust, in service applications, or in emergency. 

When the D8 brake valve is in emergency position, 
the black hand of the air gauge shows main reservoir 
pressure, owing to the position and construction of the 
rotary. 

24. Where does the air that enters the brake 
cylinders come from? Explain fully. 

Ans. The air that enters the brake cylinders with 
both plain and quick action triple valves, in service 
applications, comes from the auxiliary reservoir. With 
the type K and L, triples, the air that enters the brake 
cylinders, in service applications, comes from both the 
brake pipe and auxiliary reservoirs. This performance 
is what is known as the quick service, and produces a 
serial action in the operation of the rakes in service, 
that compares to the emergency, in the older style of 
triple valves. 

With the old style plain triple in emergency, the 
air that enters the brake cylinders comes from but the 
auxiliary reservoir, while with the quick action, type 
H, K, and L in emergency, the air that enters the 
brake cylinders comes from both the brake pipe and 
auxiliaries. This produces a serial application 
throughout the train, the brakes applying much 
quicker and harder, due to the fact that a certain per 
centage of brake pipe air is vented to the brake cylin- 
ders, causing equalization to take place higher. 



184 POCKET EDITION OF 

25. What is the duty of the triple valve? 

Ans. The duty of the triple valve, as its name 
implies, is to (triple), perform three things, charge an 
auxiliary, apply and release the brakes. The valve 
as well as performing three things, consists of three 
separate, and distinct valves, embodied in one, and the 
triple is likewise connected to three things, the brake 
pipe, the auxiliary, and the brake cylinder. Hence the 
name of triple valve. 

26. Explain the duty of the triple piston, the 
slide and graduating valve. 

Ans. The triple piston forms the dividing line 
between the brake pipe and the auxiliary reservoir 
pressures, and is the valve that opens and closes the 
feed groove in the triple piston bushing. The triple 
piston controls the movement of the slide, and graduat- 
ing valves. 

The slide valve opens and closes, communication 
between the auxiliary reservoir and the brake cylinder 
and between the brake cylinder and the atmosphere, 
in conjunction with the movement of the triple piston. 
The removed corner of the slide valve, in its move- 
ment (in emergency applications), in conjunction with 
the triple piston, causes the emergency parts of the 
quick action triple to operate. 

The graduating valve, in conjunction with the 
triple piston, and slide valve, controls the flow of air 
from the auxiliary reservoir to the brake cylinder, in 
service applications of the brake. 

Air moves the triple piston. The triple piston 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 185 

moves the slide and graduating valves. The triple 
piston moves every time air is taken from, or supplied 
to, either side of the piston. The graduating valve 
moves every time the triple piston moves (providing it 
is properly connected to the triple piston stem), and is 
in no way defective. The slide valve does not move 
every time the triple piston moves, as it has a certain 
amount of lost motion, that at certain times is not 
affected by the movement of the piston. 

This peculiar action is best understood from the 
study of the valve itself. 

27. (a) When would you use emergency? (b) 
When does emergency jerk most? Going fast, or slow? 

Ans. Emergency applications of the brake should 
only be used in cases of actual emergency. When for 
any reason it becomes actually necessary to so use the 
brakes, the engineer's valve should be placed in the 
emergency position, and allowed to remain there until 
the train stops. Do not treat every spot, stop as an 
emergency stop, or the location of coal sheds, and 
water tanks as a danger zone, as these points are the 
places, and times at which damage is done. 

Emergency jerks most when the speed of the 
train is low. The friction between the shoe and the 
wheel is practically the same at all speeds, but at a 
high speed the wheel has a tendency to throw the 
shoe away from the wheel, while at low speeds the 
shoe grips the wheel harder (due to the nature of the 
frictional surfaces), there being not so great a 
tendency for the wheel to resist the action of the brake. 



1 86 POCKET EDITION OF 

Therefore the cause for the wheels sliding at slow 
speeds. 

28. In making a service application with any 
given pressure, what proportion of it would you reduce 
to get a fully applied brake? Why? 

Ans. In making a service application of the 
brakes, a 2.-J reduction of any given pressure will pro- 
duce equalization at 5-7, and this is all the power 
obtainable in a service application of the brakes, the 
auxiliary reservoir, brake cylinder, and brake pipe 
being equal so far as the amount of pressure is con- 
cerned. The reason for this the auxiliary reservoir 
is so proportioned in size (or capacity), in comparison 
to the size of the brake cylinder, that a 2-7 reduction of 
its pressure will produce equalization, or all power 
obtainable in a service application of the brakes. 

Whenever a car has a brake cylinder too large, in 
comparison to the size of the auxiliary, it is spoken of 
as being over cylindered. Whenever the cylinder is 
too small for the size of its auxiliary, it is spoken of as 
being under cylindered. Cars so equipped obtain their 
brake power by excessive leverage, the amount of 
reduction to obtain the proper cylinder pressure for 
equalization not being taken into consideration. Most 
all cars of the present are properly cylindered up so 
that a '2-7 reduction of a given pressure, gives all the 
power obtainable in a service application of the brake. 

29. In making a service application, what should 
the first reduction be? Explain why? 

Ans. In making a service application of the 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 1 87 

brakes, the first reduction should be sufficient to get all 
pistons by the leakage grooves. This reduction 
depends upon the length of the train, usually from 5 
to 10 pounds being sufficient. The reason this is nec- 
essary is that when a reduction is made on a train of 
any considerable length, the air that is vented from the 
auxiliary to the brake cylinder will all be carried off by 
the leakage groove, unless the reduction be heavy 
enough to get the brake piston by this groove on the 
first reduction. The head brakes would apply on the 
first reduction, and on the second or subsequent 
reductions would apply that much harder, causing a 
run in off the slack, that would be liable to drive in 
draw bars, and then again is very liable to cause wheels 
to slide, due to the fact that a few cars are helping to 
stop the whole train, or the slack running out would 
be very liable to pull draw bars, by reason of finding 
the brakes set on the head end of the train. Had the 
first reduction been sufficient to get all brakes in opera- 
tion, this would have been avoided, as the train would 
have remained stretched, and the holding power would 
have been practically the same throughout the train. 

30. Why are there leakage grooves in brake cyl- 
inders? How long are these grooves? 

Ans. Leakage grooves are placed in brake cylin- 
ders, to carry off any pressure (by the non-pressure 
head) that may be vented to the brake cylinder, owing 
to a sensitive triple assuming set position, during slight 
brake pipe leaks. Were it not for the leakage groove 
in the cylinder, any slight leak in the brake pipe would 



1 88 POCKET EDITION OF 

cause the brake to apply, and it would remain applied. 
But owing to the leakage groove this does not take 
place as the small amount of air is carried off by these 
grooves. These grooves are from 2 1-2 to 3 inches in 
length, and are placed either in the side or top, of the 
cylinder. They are so placed as the groove being quite 
small would soon fill up with dirt, if placed in the 
bottom of the cylinder. A stopped-up leakage groove 
helps to get slid flat wheels. 

31. (a) After making a full service application, 
how much pressure is there in the brake cylinder? 
(b) When, and how can you get a greater pressure 
than this ? 

Ans. After making a full service application, 
there is as much pressure in the brake cylinder as there 
is in the auxiliary, and brake pipe, providing an over 
reduction has not been made. In case there has been 
an over reduction made the auxiliary, and brake cylin- 
der will be the same, but the brake pipe pressure will 
be as much lower, as its pressure was over reduced 
or reduced below the point of equalization. For 
example, with a 70 pound pressure in brake pipe and 
auxiliary, standard piston travel, after a full service 
application has been made, there is a pressure of 50 
pounds in brake pipe, auxiliary, and brake cylinder. 

A greater pressure than this can be obtained by 
using emergency, by using a higher brake pipe and 
auxiliary reservoir pressure, by a shorter piston travel, 
or by the use of retainers on the second application. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 189 

32. What do you mean by an over-reduction? 
What is the result of making an over-reduction? 

Ans. By making an over-reduction is meant the 
act of reducing the brake pipe pressure, below the 
point at which equalization takes place between the 
auxiliary, and brake cylinder. 

The results of making an over-reduction are a 
needless waste of air, a hard and difficult brake to 
release, and a needless labor placed on the air pump. 

The reason the brake is hard to release is that in 
releasing brakes, the auxiliary reservoir pressure must 
be overcome in order to force the triple piston and 
slide valve to release position. This is done through 
the medium of the brake pipe pressure, and if an over- 
reduction has been made, the amount of the over-re- 
duction, plus the amount of pressure necessary to 
overcome the frictional resistance of the triple piston; 
and slide valve, will have to be restored to the brake 
pipe before the brake can be released. 

33. (a) If you do not make an over-reduction, 
how much pressure is necessary to add to brake pipes 
air to release the brakes? (b) How much if an over- 
reduction has been made ? 

Ans. If an over-reduction has not been made, by 
raising the brake pipe pressure, I pound (over and 
above the auxiliary reservoir pressure), throughout the 
entire length of the train is considered sufficient to 
release all brakes. 

One pound over and above the auxiliary pressure 
is considered sufficient to overcome the frictional 



I9O POCKET EDITION OF 

resistance of the triple piston and slide valve, and 
move these parts to release and charging position. 

If an over-reduction has been made it will be 
necessary to restore the amount of the over-reduction, 
plus one pound throughout the brake pipe, over and 
above the auxiliary pressure to release the brakes. 

34. (a) How many applications are necessary to 
make a stop, and what is the objection to more? (b) 
What is the difference between an application and a 
reduction ? 

Ans. One application is necessary to make a stop 
on any, and all trains, two, or possibly three is advisa- 
ble on passenger trains, to make smooth and accurate 
stops. The objection to more is that it is a waste of air, 
and a loss of braking power. 

An application of the brakes is from the time the 
brakes are applied until they are released, and may 
consist of one or more reductions. 

35. When would you make more than one appli- 
cation on a passenger train; that is, under what cir- 
cumstances? How would you handle the brake valve? 

Ans. A two application stop should be made on 
all passenger trains, at all times except when the 
stop can be made with a reduction of from 8 to 10 
pounds as in suburban service, where the speed can 
not be gotten up between stations to over 20 miles per 
hour. When the speed is greater than this, or the 
stop could not be made with a reduction of from 8 to 
10 pounds, a two application stop should be made. 

In making a two application stop the brake valve 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 191 

should be handled as follows: The rails should be 
sanded the entire length of the train before shutting 
off to apply the brake, the train should be run into the 
station as close as possible (in the judgment of the 
engineer), the stop can be made safely. The first 
reduction should consist of from 15 to 18 pounds, while 
the speed of the train is high, if necessary a full service 
should be made, and when the train has reduced to 
from 12 to 15 miles per hour, or the train is stopping 
short of the intended stop, the brake valve should be 
placed in full release, and left there 1-2 second for 
each car in the train, returning the valve to lap position 
without recharging. Finish the stop with a light 
reduction, low brake cylinder pressure, and make a 
prompt release of brakes just before the train comes to 
a dead stop. 

36. (a) When should the brakes be released 
when making a stop with a passenger train consisting 
of fewer than 10 cars? (b) When on passenger trains 
of 10 cars or more? Why? (c) When should you 
release on freight trains? Why? 

Ans. The brakes on a passenger train consisting 
of less than 10 cars, should be released just before the 
train comes to a dead stop, in order to allow the trucks 
to right themselves, thus~ avoiding that disagreeable 
lurch felt if held applied until the train stops. The 
cause of this is that the brakes are hung to the trucks, 
and the car body lurches as the wheels come to a stop 
Or the trucks come to a stop and the car body has a 
tendency to continue in motion. 



192 POCKET EDITION OF 

On a train of 10 cars or more the brakes should be 
held applied until the train comes to a full stop, unless 
the engine be equipped with the combined automatic, 
and straight air retainer, or the ET equipment. In 
case the engine is so equipped it would be possible to 
release the train brakes (holding the engine brakes 
applied), just before coming to a full stop. The object 
of holding the brakes applied with a train of this 
length, is the danger of pulling out a draw bar, if a 
release is attempted at slow speed. The brakes on the 
rear of a long passenger train could not be gotten off, 
without a noticable overcharge on the head end, then 
when the rear brakes were in release position, their 
auxiliaries drawing air from the head end would cause 
a re-application of the brakes, and consequently severe 
shocks. 

A release of brakes on a freight train should not 
be attempted, until the train comes to a full stop. If 
the engine is equipped with the combined automatic, 
and straight air, or the ET equipment, a release of 
brakes at certain speeds can be safely affected. This 
subject will be treated further under the head of 
releasing brakes ordinarily. 

37. How would you handle the brake valve to 
release brakes ordinarily? What distinction would you 
make between long and short trains. 

Ans. The manner in which the brake valve 
should be handled in releasing the brakes depends on 
the length of the train, and the style of the equipment. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 193 

Usually one second for each car in the train is con- 
sidered sufficient. 

The size of the main reservoir, the amount of 
pressure it contains, and the length of the train must 
be taken into consideration in releasing brakes. 

The release of brakes should be affected as fol- 
lows : After a reduction of at least 10 pounds, has 
been made (the train brought to a slow down, or a 
stop), the brake valve handle should be placed in full 
release position, and allowed to remain in this position 
until the hands on the air gauge come well together, 
and start to settle. Just before the black hand stops 
stationary above 70, the handle of the brake valve 
should be returned to running position. After the 
black hand has stopped falling below 70, the handle 
of the brake' valve should again be placed in full release 
position, for a few seconds, to release any brakes that 
may have reapplied due to the fact that the head end 
of the train being over-charged, and the rear auxiliaries 
drawing air from the head end of the train cause a re- 
application of the brakes on the head-end of the train. 
The distinction to be made between a long and a short 
train is that the brake valve should be left in full 
release longer for a long train that it should for a 
short train, and on trains of from 28 to 30 cars or more 
the first release should be followed up with a kick-off 
or second release. 

38. On passenger trains at a high rate of speed, 
where should a train be steadied by brakes, on the 
curve or approaching it? 



194 POCKET EDITION OF 

Ans. On a passenger train at a high rate of 
speed, the brakes should be applied just as the train is 
taking the curve and left applied until the last car of 
the train is well in the curve. Recording instruments 
placed on trains show that there is no shock or jar felt 
as a train is leaving the curve, but the shock comes 
just as the train takes the point in the track that is out 
of the direct line of motion. Hence the necessity of 
having the brakes applied at this point. 

39. Why is it necessary to keep the rotary, feed 
and excess pressure valves clean? 

Ans. It is necessary to keep these valves clean, 
and in good working condition, that they may properly 
maintain and separate their pressures. The brake 
application depends largely upon the proper working 
condition of these valves. 

40. What is the purpose of the brake valve 
drum? 

Ans. The purpose of the brake valve drum (or 
equalizing reservoir) is to enlarge the capacity of 
chamber D, without increasing the size of the engineer 
brake valve. This additional capacity of chamber D 
enables the engineer to make light, gradual, service 
reductions in an automatic application of the brakes. 

41. If this drum should spring a leak on the 
road, what would you do to accomplish good braking? 

Ans. In case the little drum (or equalizing reser- 
voir) should spring a leak on the road (good braking 
can be done), the brake valve can be handled in service 
applications by making the following repairs : If 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 195 

possible repair the leak, if not a blind gasket should be 
placed in the pipe leading to the little drum, and the 
exhaust elbow should also be plugged. The brakes can 
then be applied by using the brake valve in partial 
emergency, during the time it is wished to operate the 
brakes in service, being careful not to return the brake 
valve to positive lap position too quickly, as there is 
danger of causing the head brakes to be released. This 
would be brought about by reason of stopping the brake 
pipe exhaust too suddenly, causing the flow of air to 
bank in the head end of the train, and consequently 
the brakes would release. This, aside from robbing the 
train of that much braking power, would be very 
liable to break the train in two, as well as do damage 
to draw-bars, and draught rigging. 

42. What is the result of leaving the handle of 
the engineer's brake valve in full release too long, and 
then to running position? 

Ans. With the handle of the D8 brake valve in 
full release for any considerable length of time, the 
excess pressure would be lost, then when the handle 
was returned to running position, the pump would 
resume work pumping up the excess pressure, but no 
pressure would be fed to the brake pipe, until such 
time as the full amount had been obtained, or the 
amount for which the tension of the excess pressure 
spring is set. During this time the brake pipe leaks 
would cause the brakes to drag. With the G and F6 
valves the brake pipe would be over-charged, as well 
as the excess pressure destroyed. 



I96 ' POCKET EDITION OF 

When the brake valve was returned to running 
position, the feed valve would be closed off, and would 
so remain until such time as the leaks reduced the 
pressure in the brake pipe. This would cause the 
brakes to apply. 

This increased pressure would be liable to burst 
hose, and cause wheels to be slid, due to too high a 
braking power. The fact that the brake pipe is over- 
charged is due to the fact that with these equipments, 
the brake pipe pressure is regulated by the feed valve 
attachment, and with the handle of the engineer's brake 
valve in full release, this feed valve is cut out of ser- 
vice, there being a direct opening between the main 
reservoir, and the brake pipe. The brake pipe pres- 
sure would in this case be the same as the main reser^ 
voir, and after the valve had been returned to running 
position, it would be necessary to wait until such time 
as the brake pipe pressure leaked below the tension of 
the regulating spring in the feed valve, before the feed 
valve would open and supply the leaks in the brake 
pipe. 

43. (a) What harm is caused by leaving the 1889 
engineer's valve on lap a long time, and then releas- 
ing it? Explain, (b) Would you run a pump fast with 
the 1889 valve when on a grade? 

Ans. By leaving the handle of the 1889 brake 
valve on lap position a long time the pump would 
compress air up to boiler pressure, owing to the fact 
that on lap position the governor is cut out of service. 
Then by returning the valve to running position there 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 1 97 

would be great danger of bursting hose, or in case the 
brake was applied, the wheels would be liable to slide. 
The pump could not go to work until such time as the 
brake pipe pressure leaked below the tension of the 
governor. The leaks in the brake pipe would cause the 
brakes to apply. 

The air pump should only be run fast enough to 
maintain the pressure, while descending a grade. The 
pump should have sufficient time to allow the cylinder 
to fill with air, and should not be run so slow that the 
pressure escapes by the packing ring as the pump 
is making its stroke. The best results are obtained 
by running the pump at a moderate speed. 

44. If you find the brakes dragging, how should 
you release them? 

Ans. If a proper reduction, and a prompt release 
of brakes have been made there will not be any brakes 
dragging, that could be released from the engine. But 
if found dragging, and the cause was laid to some one 
of things, they should be released as follows : If the 
brake pipe pressure was below 70 and the main reser- 
voir contained sufficient excess pressure, the handle of 
the engineer's valve should be quickly moved to 
release position. This action would cause a brake to 
be released. If the brake pipe contained 70 pounds 
pressure, and the main reservoir sufficient excess, a 
reduction of at least 10 pounds should be made, fol- 
lowed up with a prompt release of brakes. If the 
brake pipe contained 70 pounds pressure and there was 
no excess a reduction of 10 pounds should be made, 



I98 POCKET EDITION Of 

and the valve allowed to remain on lap until sufficient 
excess had been accumulated in the main reservoir 
to make a prompt release of brakes. If the brake is 
applied due to an over-charged brake pipe, and the 
conditions were such that by setting the brake to 
reduce the pressure there would be danger of stalling, 
it would then be advisable to leave the brake pipe 
over-charged until such time as it would be possible 
to make the proper applications and releases to get the 
pressures normal. 

The conditions under which these releases should 
be tried depend upon the physical characteristics of 
the road, speed and make up of the train. If moving 
at a speed of less than 20 miles per hour, it is advisable 
to bring the train to a full stop before making the 
release of brakes. 

45. Will a 10 pound reduction from 65 set the 
brake harder than 10 pounds from 50 pounds brake 
pipe pressure? 

Ans. A 10 pound reduction from 65 pounds brake 
pipe pressure will not set the brake any harder than 
a 10 pound reduction from 50 pounds pressure will 
providing the existing conditions are the same. This 
is brought about by the fact that only 10 pounds go to 
the brake cylinder, and this is below the point of 
equalization. 

46. If you had but 35 pounds of air, how much 
would you reduce to get full power obtainable? 

Ans. With but 35 pounds of air a 2-7 reduction 
(or 10 pounds) should be made to get all power obtain- 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 199 

able in a service application of the brakes. That is 
if the car had standard 8 inch piston travel. 

47. What is the proper method of testing brakes 
on a train? Give trainmen's duties complete, with this 
answer. 

Ans. The engineer should make a thorough 
inspection of the engine equipment before leaving the 
round house. He should know that the engine had 
the proper piston travel, that all parts of the equip- 
ment, such as rotary, feed valve, and governors were 
clean and in a good working condition. He should 
know that the pump maintains the standard pressures, 
and the operation of it is such that it will be capable 
of furnishing air for the train, during the trip. He 
should then proceed to the point where he is to get the 
train and prepare the engine to be coupled to a train. 
The trainmen should have been on duty at least 30 
minutes before the engine arrives, and should have the 
train ready for its departure. This work should con- 
sist of coupling up the air hose between each car, 
opening up all angle cocks except the last one which 
should be closed. He should close all doors, let off all 
hand brakes (if the location of the train on its track 
will safely permit of it), turn down all retainers, cut-in 
cars found cut-out, and give the train a good inspec- 
tion for any defect in the brake equipment, such as, 
brake beams down, shoes gone, and brake rods broken. 
The head man should then proceed to line up switches, 
and couple the engine to the train. The engineer 
should have had the brake valve on lap and a full 



200 POCKET EDITION OF 

pressure in the main reservoir. He should make sev- 
eral applications and releases just before the engine 
is coupled onto the train, holding the brake valve 
on lap, until given a signal that the air is cut-in. The 
brakeman backing the engine on to the train should 
be careful and see that all switches are properly lined 
up, and that all cars clear as he is backing in. After 
making the coupling he should blow out the hose on 
rear of tender, and couple the same to the hose on the 
head end of the train. He should then give the 
engineer a signal or else by word of mouth inform him 
that all is ready to charge the train. On receiving this 
signal from the brakeman the engineer should move 
the handle of the brake valve to full release position, 
and charge the train in this position. The engineer 
should leave the handle of the brake valve in this 
position until the black hand of the air gauge registers 
70 pounds pressure, as the pump not only works much 
more freely, but the air that is being compressed is 
pumped direct into the brake pipe. The brakeman at 
the head and the one at the rear of the train should 
start towards each other, looking for brake pipe, and 
auxiliary leaks. Any leaks found should either be 
repaired by them or else have the car repairer do so. 
As soon as the train was charged the engineer would 
signify the fact that he was ready to try brakes by one 
blast of the steam whistle, and upon a signal from the 
trainmen to apply the brake he should make a reduc- 
tion of 25 pounds noting the length and strength of the 
brake pipe exhaust (which would tell him approx- 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 20t 

imately the number of cars in the train, whether there 
are any triples setting quick action, any partially 
closed angle cocks, or collapsed hose. The head man 
should be at the head end of the train, and the rear 
brakeman at the last car of air in the train, when the 
signal to try brakes is given, and as soon as the brakes 
are set they should walk toward each other, looking 
for brake cylinder and auxiliary leaks, noting the 
piston travel, and the fact that all brakes are applied. 
The brakeman should adjust all excessive piston travel, 
examine all cylinder leaks, see that there is a brake on 
each car if possible, under circumstances, to obtain it.. 
When the condition of the brakes is ascertained, a 
signal to release should be given. The engineer will 
signify with two blasts of the steam whistle that the 
signal is received, and will at once make a prompt 
release of brakes. (This subject is explained under 
the head of releasing brakes). The trainmen will then 
retrace their steps, noticing that all brakes release, if 
not the cause should be ascertained, and the brake 
cut out if necessary. If in a section of the country 
where retainers are used, the brake should be reap- 
plied and the retainers turned up, the brakes released, 
and the retainers turned down. If the retainer 
exhausts air after the handle has been turned down, 
it is considered to- be in good condition, and can be 
depended upon in case it becomes necessary to use 
them. Retainers found defective should be carded, 
and the fact reported at the car repair station where 
set out, if not repaired at the point where found 



202 DOCKET EDITION OF 

defective. As soon as the two trainmen have met and 
exchanged notes in regards to the condition of the 
brakes as found in each of their respective sections, 
they should report the same to the conductor, who 
will in turn inform the engineer as to the condition 
of the brakes, the number of loads and empties, the 
manner in which the train is made up, and the ton- 
nage of the train. The engineer is then in a position 
to do good braking, make smooth and accurate stops. 
These instructions may vary in regards to the manner 
of trying brakes on some roads, but if lived up to on 
any road, will be found sufficient. 

48. (a) Where else except at starting points 
should you insist on a brake test being made? (b) Of 
what should this test consist? 

Ans. The brakes should be tested, or a brake 
test made at such points as follows : One thousand 
feet from the starting point, two miles from such 
places as railroad crossings, interlocking plants, draw- 
bridges, ends of single and double track, junction 
points, bad curves, important stations, or at any place 
in the track where slow order boards are in vogue, or 
by train order a slow down is necessary. A two 
hundred feet test is also required, where trains are 
backed, that, or a greater distance with a tail hose. A 
brake test should also be made every time the train 
has been for any reason parted, such as taking coal or 
water, setting out or picking up cars, or any time a 
crossing has been cut, and recoupled again. 

The one thousand feet test consists of applying 



Locomotive engineering 203 

the brake against the working of the engine, one 
thousand feet from the starting point. The brake 
should be held applied until all parties concerned, are 
satisfied that the air is in operation. A two mile test 
on passenger should consist of at least a 10 pound 
reduction, two miles from any of these points men- 
tioned, and the following things noticed, the length 
and strength of the brake pipe exhaust (telling approx- 
imately the length of the train), and the manner in 
which the brakes take hold, should be noticed. On a 
freight train a reduction of about three pounds should 
be made and the length and strength of the brake pipe 
exhaust noticed. A two hundred feet test on a passen- 
ger train being backed up with a tail hose should con- 
sist of a sufficient reduction made with the tail hose to 
stop the train against the working of the engine. It 
sliould be made two hundred feet from the starting 
point, and if not made by the back up crew, a stop 
should be made and the reason why ascertained. A 
brake test consists of a sufficient reduction to satisfy 
the parties concerned that the brakes from engine to 
way car apply and release from the engine. When 
cars are picked up in route, a brake test should be 
made (and a terminal test made on the cars picked 
up) on the rest of the train. 

The method for testing brakes on passenger trains 
are as follows : The engineer handles the brake valve 
in the same manner attaching his engine to the train, 
as on a freight train. After the engine has been 
coupled to a train, brake pipes and air-signaling con- 



204 POCKET EDITION OF 

nections have been made and the train charged, he- 
would proceed to test brakes as follows : The brake- 
man would start from rear of train looking for brake 
pipe and auxiliary leaks, also try each car discharge 
valve to see that it is working properly, upon reaching 
head of train he should notify the engineer by word of 
mouth that he is ready to test brakes. The engineer 
will (if the train is charged) then make a 25 pound 
service reduction, noting the length and strength of 
the brake pipe exhaust, also note whether there are 
any partially closed angle cocks or collapsed hose,, or 
whether any triples set quick action. The brakeman 
will pass along the train noting that the brakes have 
set, and that the brakes have the proper piston travel, 
and whether there are any brake cylinder leaks. On 
reaching the rear of the train he will signal to release 
brakes by pulling the signal cord in the rear coach, 
four separate times, so that four distinct signals may 
be transmitted to the engineer. The engineer will then 
on receiving the signal, make a prompt release of 
brakes. The man in charge will then inform the 
engineer, as to the condition of the brakes. 

49. In testing brakes why not use emergency 
application? 

Ans. When testing brakes, emergency should 
not be used as it is improper to do braking in this man- 
ner, only in cases of actual emergency. Emergency 
applications produce an unnecessary, strain on the 
brake rigging, and aside from this the object of testing 
brakes is to find out the condition, of the brakes as they 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 205 

are to be operated. The brakes are not always 
operated in emergency so it is advisable to find the 
condition of them in the manner in which they are to 
be operated the percentage of the time. If the brakes 
be applied in emergency the blow of the brake pipe 
exhaust is lost, it can not be told as to whether there 
are any triples setting quick action during a service 
reduction, the length of the train can not be told as the 
exhaust is lost in emergency applications. Neither 
can it be told, if there are any partially closed angle 
cocks, or collapsed hose, and then again some brakes 
would set in emergency that would not set in service, 
and this of course would rob the engineer of imaginary 
brake power if the brake be applied in service after 
being tried in emergency. 

50. Why make a full reduction and not 5 or 6 
pounds? 

Ans. It is advisable to make a full reduction 
rather than a 5 or 6 pound one on the account of the 
fact that in some lengths of trains this would not be 
sufficient to get all pistons by the leakage grooves on a 
long train, and some triples might set with a full reduc- 
tion that would not set with 5 or 6 pounds and could 
not tell whether there were any defective triples in the 
train. 

51. If one triple goes to emergency will the 
others follow? Explain. 

Ans. When one triple sets quick action the 
others will follow providing there are not too many 
piped cars, or too many plain triples together in the 



206 POCKET EDITION OF 

train. The reason that other triples follow in quick 
action is that the defective triple setting quick action 
makes a local reduction which reduction robs the brake 
pipe and causes other triples to set in emergency. 

52. In making test with train standing can you 
detect if any brake in train sets quick action? Explain. 

Ans. Yes as when a triple sets quick action it can 
be told by the sudden stoppage of the brake pipe 
exhaust. This stoppage is caused by the air in brake 
pipe rushing to the brake cylinders on the cars that 
have set in emergency. 

53. How would you proceed to ascertain which 
car it was? 

Ans. If a triple sets quick it can be ascertained as 
to the defective triple by a sectional test, which should 
be done as follows : Take 20 cars, release the brakes 
and charge up, then make sufficient reduction to get 
the pistons by the leakage grooves, usually 5 or 6 
pounds, then have the brakeman find the car that has 
not set. When he has done so he would signal the en- 
gineer to make a further reduction. 

If the triple responds to the second reduction, and 
the piston on the car moves out with a jump, it is rea- 
sonable to think this the defective car. The triple 
should be cut out, and the auxiliary bleed cock opened 
and left in this manner. The car should then be 
carded, and another sectional test made to ascertain if 
there be another defective triple in this particular sec- 
tion. Failing to find any, the brakes should be released 
and the train charged. When charged a brake test 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING *>7 

should be made, to satisfy that all cars were cut in 
and that the train contained no more defective triples. 

54. Why is it necessary, in making a thorough 
test, to hold brakes applied for a minute or longer? 

Ans. The brakes should be held applied for a 
minute or longer, so as to give the brakeman a chance 
to look the train over, and a brake that would not 
remain applied for a minute would be considered a 
very poor brake. The car should be carded but the 
brake should not be cut out. 

55. In switching with an air braked train, and 
picking up uncharged cars, how would you handle the 
engineer's brake valve? 

Ans. When switching is being done with an air 
braked train the train brakes should be applied in the 
service application position, and great care used to 
prevent doing damage to draw-bars and draught rig- 
ging. Each brake application should be made to go 
as far as possible, and as little air used as possible, 
bearing in mind that the pressure in the auxiliary is 
the pressure that sets the brake, the length of time 
necessary to recharge being taken into consideration. 
When picking up uncharged cars, a service reduction 
should be made so as not to hit the cars too hard. 
When the coupling has been made the brakes should 
be released and the engineer's brake valve placed on 
lap position. When the brakeman has coupled up the 
hose, a reduction of about ten pounds should be made, 
as soon as the signal has been given to release, the 
engineer should place the brake valve in full release, 



208 POCKET EDITION OF 

and he is then able to charge the uncharged section 
as he is pulling out to couple on to the rest of his 
train. When backing on to the rear section of the 
train he should make sufficient reduction to prevent 
coupling too hard. After coupling he should release 
and then make a reduction of 10 or 12 pounds to pre- 
vent quick action, when cut in to the rest of his 
train. 

As soon as the car» have all been cut in and 
charged up a brake test should be made on the train 
and a terminal test on the cars picked up made before 
leaving the town, this brake test to consist of know- 
ing, after a sufficient reduction had been made that the 
head and rear brakes apply and release from the 
engine. 

56. Why should the brakes be released before 
uncoupling from a train? 

Ans. The brakes should be released before un- 
coupling from a train for the following reasons : So 
as to enable the train to be readily switched, to enable 
the car inspector to examine the wheels, to prevent the 
brake shoes from freezing to the wheels in winter 
weather, or possible triples might freeze in set position 
giving trouble when it is wished to release the brake. 
If the air is set and the hand brake be set on top of 
the air as when setting a car out on a siding, there is 
danger of the air leaking off and the strain placed on 
the chain would be very liable to break it. The car 
would then be left without a brake and a serious 
wreck might result by reason of the car running away. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 20O, 

When a car is set on a siding it is better practice to 
set the hand brake. In case the car had no hand 
brake, and there was any danger of the car moving it 
would be advisable to block the wheels and notify the 
train dispatcher, if no agent be present. 

57. With the same piston travel will empty and 
loaded cars hold alike? 

Ans. With the same piston travel, empty and 
loaded cars have the same braking power (that is if 
the brake beams be hung to the truck body) and will 
hold alike, but will not stop alike as the load has the 
momentum of its load to be overcome by the brake. 
If the brake beams be hung to the car body they will 
not hold alike as the load causes the shoes to hang 
much lower on the wheel, hence a longer piston travel, 
which gives a weaker braking power, in comparison 
to the empty. 

58. What has the piston travel to do with the 
breaking power? Explain fully. 

Ans. The piston travel has much to do with the 
power developed in the brake cylinder, the pressure, 
rods, and levers, with a permissible piston travel for 
the car govern the brake force. The shorter the piston 
travel, the higher the auxiliary and brake cylinder 
equalize, the greater the auxiliary is over the brake 
cylinder, and the lesser the amount of the reduction to 
produce equalization. The longer the piston travel, 
the lower the auxiliary and brake cylinder equalize, 
the lesser the amount the auxiliary is over the brake 
cylinder, and the greater the reduction necessary to 



210 POCKET EDITION OF 

produce equalization. Short travel holds the best and 
long travel holds the least. Unequal piston travel 
causes an unequal distribution of braking power, causes 
bad jerks and jars in a train, due to the action of the 
slack, and the brake when applied in full, is hard to 
release owing to the difference in brake piston travel 
which caused some cars to equalize high, and others 
low. 

59. Can you tell approximately by a 5 or 6 pound 
reduction how many air brake cars are coupled up? 

Ans. By a 5 or 6 pound reduction you can tell 
approximately the length of brake pipe but can not 
tell the number of cars cut in and working. 

60. Approaching what points would you make 
the two mile test? Of what should this test consist? 

Ans. The two mile test should be made at the 
following places : At railroad crossings, draw-bridges, 
interlocking plants, junction points, meeting points, 
end of double track, coal chutes, water tanks and 
dangerous places and important stops. This test on 
passenger trains should consist of a 10 pound brake 
pipe reduction, feel the brakes hold and note the brake 
pipe exhaust. On freight trains it should consist of 
from 3 to 4 pound reduction, sufficient to get the 
brake pipe blow. 

61. In descending a grade, how can you best 
keep a train under control? 

Ans. You should, approach the grade with the 
train under control, with the brake pipe and auxiliaries 
high, and the speed of the train low, would make each 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 211 

application go as far as possible, bearing in mind the 
length of time it takes to recharge an auxiliary, and 
taking advantage of letups and curves to release and 
recharge. When releasing the brakes, the engineer's 
valve should be placed in full release and left in this 
position until fully charged, or it is wished to use the 
brakes. Would upon reaching the foot of the grade, 
make sufficient applications and releases to get brake 
pipe and auxiliaries down to their proper pressures, and 
have all brakes released. 

62. How would you ordinarily apply and release 
the brakes on a part air brake train (freight train) ? 

Ans. The manner in which the brakes should be 
applied and released on a part air brake train is as 
follows : The engine should be shut off in good time, 
and the slack allowed to bunch against the engine, 
then a sufficient reduction should be made to get the 
pistons by the leakage grooves (this depends on the 
length of the train) and allow the slack to further 
bunch. The stop should then be completed by making 
whatever reduction necessary, care being used to pre- 
vent making an over-reduction, the brakes being 
released just as the drivers stop turning. This should 
be done so as to prevent doing damage to the equip- 
ment in case the slack would run out and find the 
brakes applied on the air part of the train. 

63. When brakes go on suddenly without the 
action of the engineer, what is the cause, and what 
would you do? 

Ans. When the brakes go on suddenly without 



212 POCKET EDITION OF 

the action of the engineer, it may be caused by some 
of the following causes. Train parted, burst hose, 
or the conductor's valve held open, or possibly the rear 
angle cock opened. The engineer should at once shut 
off the engine and lap the valve, whistle broken in two 
until answered by the trainmen. 

64. If found the train was broken in two, how 
would you proceed to get under way again promptly? 

Ans. In case the train was found to be broken 
in two, and after the brakeman had closed the angle 
cocks, the engineer should place his brake valve in full 
release, making a prompt release of brakes, on the 
section of the train to which the engine was coupled. 
On a signal from the brakeman the engineer would 
back on to the rear section of the train being careful 
not to do damage by coupling too hard as the brakes 
would be rigidly set on the rear section and if struck 
hard damage would result. As soon as the brakeman 
had made the coupling the engineer should make at 
least a 10 pound reduction to block quick action, and 
as soon as he had been cut in he should make a prompt 
release of brakes. He is then ready to proceed. 

65. If after coupling up, you could not release 
all brakes at once, how would you handle the brake 
valve to do so most quickly? 

Ans. If after coupling up the brakes could not be 
released, the engineer should place the brake valve in 
full release, and allow the pump to pump the brake 
pipe pressure up to about 60 or 65 pounds, he would 
then place the brake valve on lap position, and after 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 213 

sufficient excess had been stored in the main reser- 
voir, a prompt release of brakes could be made. With 
a train of from 28 to 30 cars or more a second release, 
or kick off should be made, in order to release head 
brakes that have reapplied due to the over-charged 
condition of the head end of the train. After all brakes 
had been released a brake test should be insisted on 
before leaving this point. 

66. How would you handle engineer's valve 
when backing up a train, where a "tail hose" is being 
used at rear end of train? 

Ans. When a train is being backed up with a tail 
hose in use, the engineer's valve should be handled as 
follows : The engineer should carry the brake valve 
in running position at all times, except on a signal 
from the rear of the train to apply brakes. After the 
train had been brought to a stop by a reduction made 
with the tail hose, the engineer should place his brake 
valve in full release, to release all brakes before back- 
ing . up. Some brakes might not feed off and this 
would be a precaution against any slid flat wheels. 

67. When two or more engines are coupled 
together, which engine should do the braking? 

Ans. When two or more engines are coupled 
together the leading, or head engine, should do the 
braking. This is not only required by law, but the 
leading engineer has a much better view of the track, 
and can use better judgment in making stops. There 
should never be any deviation from this set rule, as in 
cases of this kind, there is always the greatest possi- 



214 POCKET EDITION OF 

bility for something to happen, and then the engineer 
finds he can offer no plausible, or acceptable excuse. 

68. What would you do on the other engine? 
Ans. The man on the second, or following 

engines, should place the brake valve in running 
position, close the cut-out cock in the brake pipe 
underneath the brake valve, on such equipments as 
the D8, G or F6, or ET6. On the number 5 ET he 
should carry the brake valve on lap position, with the 
cut-out cock in the brake pipe closed. With the old 
style D8 there being no cut-out cock in the brake 
pipe, it was necessary to carry the valve on lap posi- 
tion. With the ET number 5 the brake valve should 
be carried on lap position, the cut-out cock under the 
brake valve being closed. 

69. What is the proper piston travel on cars? 
On tenders? On cam driver brakes? On American 
driver brakes? 

Ans. The proper piston travel on cars is from 
6 to 8 inches, on tenders it is from 6 to 9 inches, on 
cam driver brakes it is from 2 to 4 inches, on engine 
trucks it is from 6 to 9 inches, and on American driver 
brakes it is from 4 to 6 inches. 

70. How is the slack taken up in each case? And 
how can you keep, shoes from rubbing continuously on 
cam driver brakes? 

Ans. The slack is taken up on cars by dead 
levers, turn buckles, and automatic slack adjusters; 
on cam driver brakes by cam screws, and lock nuts ; 
on engine trucks by turn buckles, and dead levers; 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 21$ 

on American driver brakes by fulcrum screw, and 
lock nut. 

The shoes on a cam brake are kept from rubbing 
against the wheel by springs, or a rod that acts as a 
spring to prevent the shoe from rubbing against the 
wheel. 

71. Does a poor driver and tender brake have 
any tendency to increase the flat wheel record on cars? 
How? 

Ans. A poor driver brake has a tendency to 
increase the flat wheel record on cars by reason of the 
fact that a heavier reduction must be made on the 
cars in order to stop the train, the cars having to help 
stop the engine, instead of the engine helping to stop 
the cars. By reason of this heavy reduction the wheels 
are liable to pick up and slide. Heavy brake power, 
unequally distributed such as no driver brake, brings 
about a condition known as the wheel being knocked 
off its feet. By this is meant that a good brake with a 
heavy reduction made on the same, in trying to stop 
cars behind it with poor brakes is forced to slide due 
to the resistance of the brake in comparison to the 
amount it is trying to stop. 

72. Why is it important to have driver brakes in 
good order? 

Ans. It is important to have a good driver brake 
as it is the best brake in the train, the most expensive 
brake, the hardest brake to keep up, a good tire dresser, 
slack buncher, prevents the engine from breaking 



2l6 POCKET EDITION OF 

away from the train, or tender, and helps to reduce the 
slid flat wheel record on cars. 

73. How do you test for leaks in the air brake 
equipment, especially driver, and tender brakes? 

Ans. The leaks in the air brake equipment, 
especially driver and tender brake can be found in the 
following manner : With full pressures, a reduction 
of 15 or 20 pounds should be made, lap the brake valve 
and shut off the pump. Then note the air gauge. If 
the red hand falls, there is a main reservoir leak, the 
black hand remaining stationary. If the black hand 
as well as the red hand falls slowly, it is a brake pipe, 
and main reservoir leak. If the black hand crawls up 
quickly, and the brake releases slowly it is a leaky 
gasket 32. If the black hand crawls up quickly and 
the brake whistles off, it is a leaky rotary valve. The 
pump should then be started, and if the black hand 
falls and the brake does not release it is a brake pipe 
leak. If the black hand falls and the brake releases it 
is an auxiliary leak. If the black hand remains sta- 
tionary and the brake leaks off it is a brake cylinder 
leak. 

74. What bad results follow if engine is reversed 
when making a stop with air brakes applied? 

Ans. The bad results that would follow in case 
the engine was reversed with the air brakes applied 
are that the pistons in the cylinders form air com- 
pressors, and they act as a brake, retarding to a certain 
extent the motion of the engine. The brakes being 
applied even though not holding as they should with 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 217 

the additional power of the engine reversed, would 
certainly cause the wheels to lock and slide. 

75. (a) If when making a stop with a heavy 
freight train, the drivers should begin to slide, and 
you did not dare to release the brake for fear of break- 
ing in two, what would you do? (b) What would you 
do if equipped with combined automatic and straight 
air brake? 

Ans. If when making a stop with a heavy freight 
train, the drivers should pick up and slide (a drawbar 
should be sacrificed for a pair of tires), would con- 
sider it advisable to release. If it were absolutely 
impossible to release as, when nearing a draw bridge, 
or interlocking plant, the reverse lever should be 
placed in full gear and the engine throttle opened wide. 
This will usually start the wheels turning, but in case 
it would not and it were possible to reach the bleed 
cock on the auxiliary reservoir, from the cab window, 
or the steps, would either open it or knock it off. This 
would release the driver brake but probably not soon 
enough to prevent flattening the tires. 

If the engine was equipped with the combined 
automatic and straight air, the driver brake bleed cock 
should be opened, and the brake will then release. As 
soon as this had been accomplished, the brake could 
be reapplied by the use of the straight air brake, apply- 
ing the brake gradually, until the desired pressure had 
been obtained. 

If the engine was equipped with the ET equip- 
ment, the handle of the independent brake valve 



2l8 POCKET EDITION OF 

should be moved to full release position (which 
position is the same to this equipment as a driver 
brake bleed cock is to the other equipment), this will 
quickly release the brakes. They may then be 
reapplied the same as with the combined automatic 
and straight air, using the independent brake valve. 

76. When do wheels generally $»lide, at a high or 
a low speed? Why? 

Ans. The wheels generally slide at slow speed as 
the friction between the shoe and the wheel is greater 
than the adhesion between the wheel and the rail. At 
high speeds the wheel has a tendency to throw the 
shoe from the wheel, while at slow speed the shoe grips 
the wheel, hence the reason for the wheel sliding. By 
some it is argued that there is less friction at high 
speeds than at low but the majority consider that the 
friction remains the same in either case, but the hold- 
ing power of the brake is accounted for by the action 
of the wheel in relation to its shoe. 

77. Which is most liable to slide, a freight or a 
passenger car? Why? 

Ans. The passenger car is most liable to slide as 
it is broke to a higher per cent of its light weight, 
hence as long as it has a greater brake force it will of 
course be more liable to slide than the freight car. 
Passenger cars are broke to 90 per cent, of their 
weight, while the freight car is generally broke to 
about 70 per cent, of its light weight. 

78. How would you make a stop in slippery 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 219 

weather, with a passenger train? What kind of a rail 
is most slippery? 

Ans. In making a stop with a passenger train on 
a slippery rail would use at least two and possibly 
three applications. Would first sand the rail the entire 
length of the train, and then make a heavy service 
reduction of from 15 to 18 pounds while the speed of 
the train was high, would bring the train down to 
about 15 miles per hour, then release, if time and space 
permitted would recharge, and if not would place the 
brake valve on lap, would finish the stop with light 
application, having the brakes released going over 
muddy road crossings, or just before the drivers stop 
turning. A light sprinkled, or a frosty, rail is the most 
slippery. A rail in this condition is the same as 
though the rail had been greased. 

79. If it is impossible to depend on sand as with 
a side wind, or sand pipes stopped up, how would you 
do breaking? 

Ans. If it were impossible to depend on sand as 
with a side wind, or the pipes stopped up the break- 
ing should be done as follows : The engineer should 
shut the engine off sooner than usual, and do his 
braking heavier in the start, slowing the train down 
to a speed of from 15 to 18 miles per hour, then releas- 
ing and making the second application in much the 
same manner, as all two application stops should be 
made. In case time and space will permit it is always 
advisable to recharge. This should be done as an extra 
precaution in case danger should arise. The engineer 



'220 POCKET EDITION OF 

would then have the full pressures, and an emergency 
application would be possible, in case emergency 
arise. 

80. What can be learned by noticing the dis- 
charge from the brake pipe exhaust? 

Ans. The brake pipe exhaust tells approximately 
the length of the train, that is it tells the number of 
air cars cut-in. It also tells whether there are any 
partially closed angle cocks, or collapsed hose in the 
train or whether any triples set quick action during a 
service reduction. 

81. Are the brake pipe and auxiliary pressures 
always the same? 

Ans. The brake pipe and auxiliaries are not 
always the same, but are the same when fully charged, 
when the brake valve is on lap, and the pressures are 
equalized. They are not the same when charging, 
applying, or releasing the brake in an over reduction, 
emergency application, or when bleeding an auxiliary. 

82. What is the pressure retaining valve, and 
what is its use? To what is it connected? 

Ans. The pressure retaining valve is a weighted 
valve, generally placed on the end of the car so as to 
be convenient for trainmen to operate. Its use is to 
maintain from 15 to 50 pounds in the brake cylinders 
while a release, and recharge of brake pipe and 
auxiliaries is being made. The retainer is connected 
to the triple exhaust port, and even, though the triple 
valve be in release position this valve prevents all the 
brake cylinder pressure from passing out to the atmos- 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 221 

phere. The amount being vented to the atmosphere 
being the difference between the pressure developed in 
the brake cylinder, and the weight of the valve in the 
retainer. This acts as a safe guard when releasing 
brakes and makes it possible to release on grades, 
where it would otherwise be impossible (and keep the 
train in control) were it not for the holding feature of 
the retainers. 

83. If the air signal blows every time the brakes 
are released, what is wrong? Explain. 

Ans. If the signal whistle blows every time the 
brakes are released, it is an indication that the signal 
line is over-charged. The signal line being charged to 
main reservoir pressure, due either to too great a ten- 
sion on the signal line reducing valve, or some defect 
in the valve which has brought about this over 
charged condition. The reason the whistle blows is 
that the signal line being charged to main reservoir 
pressure responds to the reduction in its pressure (it 
being the same as main reservoir) when the brake is 
released. 

84. What defect will cause the air signal whistle 
to give two or more blasts each time the cord is pulled 
properly? 

Ans. The defects that will cause the air signal 
whistle to give two or more blasts each time the cord 
is pulled properly are: A badly worn stem, this stem 
being worn so loose in its bushing that the differen- 
tial in pressures in chambers A and B cause it to 
dance when a reduction is made. Hence the whistle 



222 POCKET EDITION OF 

gives two or more blasts. The rubber diaphram being 
too stiff, or all the elasticity gone due to the fact that 
the whistle valve has been exposed to heat, will cause 
two or more blasts of the whistle each time the cord 
is pulled properly. The diaphram being stiff causes a 
rebound, and the valve opens two or more times, when 
only once was intended. 

85. If the air signal pipe does not charge what 
might be the cause? If its does charge but does not 
respond when proper reduction is made, where would 
you look for the trouble? 

Ans. If the air signal pipe does not charge, it 
may be due to the fact that the cut-out cock in the 
pipe, in the signal reducing valve is closed, or the 
restricted passage in the signal reducing valve stopped 
up, the regulating spring in the signal reducing valve 
broken, or the reducing valve frozen up. 

If the signal line is charged and the whistle does 
not respond to the reduction, it may be due to the 
following causes : The strainer in the T pipe connec- 
tion of the car discharge valve is partly stopped up 
(the reduction is made in the car, but is not felt in 
the signal valve), the signal valve not being charged, 
due to the fact that the passage in the signal valve 
being stopped up, the diaphram cracked or baggy, the 
port in the pipe connection signal valve, leading to 
the whistle stopped up, a crack, or split in the 
pipe, or a blind gasket placed in the pipe, the bowl of 
the whistle rilled with dirt, the whistle improperly 
adjusted, or wind from an open cab window blowing 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 223 

across the whistle will prevent the whistle from blow- 
ing. 

86. Name three complete parts that are added to 
the ordinary brake to make the latter a high speed 
brake. How would you change from low to high 
pressure, or from high to low? 

Ans. The three complete parts that are added 
to the ordinary brake to make the latter a high speed 
brake are, the duplex feed valve attachment, the duplex 
governor, and its pipe connections, and the high speed 
reducing valve. 

To change from low to high pressure it is neces- 
sary to turn the cut-out cock in the low pressure gov- 
ernor, cutting in the high pressure, or maximum pres- 
sure head, and turn the handle of the cut-out cock in 
the duplex feed valve towards the high pressure side 
cutting in the high pressure feed valve. 

To change from high to low it is necessary to turn 
the cut-out cock in the feed valve, cutting out the 
high, and cutting in the low pressure feed valve also 
turning the cut-out cock in the pipe connection leading 
to the governors, cutting out the high, and cutting in 
the low. 

87. With full high speed pressure, at what 
amount will the auxiliary and brake cylinder equalize 
when using emergency? Explain how the high speed 
reducing valve works. Should the emergency be used 
with the high speed brake at a speed of less than 40 
miles per hour? 

Ans. With full high speed pressures (no pounds 



224 POCKET EDITION OF 

brake pipe) the auxiliary and brake cylinder will 
equalize at 88 pounds (with 8 inch piston travel). 

The high speed reducing valve is composed of a 
slide valve, piston and a regulating spring, in a suit- 
able cast body. The slide valve is connected to the 
piston, and the piston rests on the regulating spring. 
The slide valve has a triangular port, that registers 
with an oblong port in the face of the slide valve seat. 
The piston is exposed to brake cylinder pressure by 
suitable pipe connections from the triple valve. The 
normal position of the slide valve is closed. Any air 
that is vented to the brake cylinder is free to pass on 
top of the piston and around the slide valve. The ten- 
sion of the regulating spring is 6o pounds on cars, and 
50 pounds on the engine. When the brakes are applied 
in a service application the brake cylinder pressure 
forces the piston down, taking with it the slide valve 
and setting up connection with the atmosphere. 

The tension of the spring allows the base of the 
triangular port to register with the oblong port in the 
face of the slide valve seat, and the excess pressure 
(or pressure over the tension of the regulating spring) 
is allowed to escape to the atmosphere. When the 
pressure is reduced below the tension of the spring, 
the piston is forced up bringing with it the slide valve, 
and the oblong port is blanked. The remaining pres- 
sure in the cylinder is retained until the brakes are 
released. 

When the brakes are applied in emergency, the 
brake cylinder pressure forces the piston in the reduc- 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 225 

ing valve the full length of its travel, taking with it 
the slide valve. The apex of the triangular port now 
registers with the oblong port, and the brake cylinder 
pressure is reduced slow, until such time as the spring 
being the stronger forces the piston up, taking with it 
the slide valve, and as it moves up the triangular port 
increases the opening venting the brake cylinder pres- 
sure quickly, as the speed of the train reduces. 

Emergency should not be used with the high 
speed brake, at a speed of less than 40 miles per hour, 
as there would be danger of the wheels locking and 
sliding, owing to the fact that the reducing valve could 
not reduce the pressure sufficiently fast to prevent it, 
with the high cylinder pressure. 

88. With full high speed brake pressure, how 
many full service applications can be made without 
recharging auxiliaries, and have left as much pressure 
as is used with the ordinary quick action brake? 

Ans. There could be two full service applica- 
tions of 20 pounds each made, and still have left as 
much pressure as though none were made with the 
ordinary brake. Three could be made with the high 
speed pressures, and have left as much as though one 
had been made (20 pounds reduction) with the 
ordinary brake. 

This is a great advantage as more applications can 
be made without recharging brake pipe and auxil- 
iaries. 

89. What parts are necessary to add to the engine 



226 POCKET EDITION OF 

and tender automatic brake to make it the combined 
automatic, and straight air brake? 

Ans. The parts necessary to add to the engine 
and tender automatic brake, to make the combined 
automatic and straight air brake are a straight air 
reduction valve, straight air brake valve, two double 
check valves, two safety valves, two grade bleed cocks, 
straight air gauge, necessary piping and hose connec- 
tions. 

90. For what purpose is this class of equipment 
designed? 

Ans. This class of equipment is specially 
designed for heavy freight, and switch service, but is 
also of great advantage in heavy passenger service. 

91. What are the positions of the straight air 
brake valve, and what does each position do to the 
pressure? 

Ans. The positions of the straight air brake 
valve are full release or running, lap or holding, and 
application position. 

Release position closes communication between 
the application chamber, and the brake cylinder, and 
opens communication between the brake cylinder, and 
the atmosphere. 

Lap position closes communication between the 
application chamber and the brake cylinder, and 
between the brake cylinder and the atmosphere, by 
allowing both the application and release valves to be 
closed, or seated. 

Application position establishes communication 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 22"] 

between the application chamber and the brake cylin- 
der, by opening the application valve, and closes com- 
munication between the brake cylinder and the atmos- 
phere, by seating the release valve. 

92. What is the duty of the double check? 
Ans. The duty of the double check valve is to 

form the dividing line, while using either the auto- 
matic, or the straight air brake valves. When using 
the automatic, it closes communication between the 
brake cylinder, and the straight air exhaust. When 
using the straight air it closes communication between 
the brake cylinder and the triple valve exhaust port, 

93. What is the duty of the safety valve? 
Ans. The duty of the safety valve is to relieve 

the cylinders of any and all pressure, over and above 
the tension of its regulating spring. It is supposed to 
operate at 53 pounds, or above, and is a precaution 
against developing too great a brake cylinder pressure, 
in case for any reason the reducing valve might be- 
come inoperative, or the tension on its regulating 
spring be too great. 

94. What is the purpose of the grade bleed 
cock? 

Ans. The purpose of the grade bleed cock is to 
make it possible to release either the driver, or tender 
brake, or both without interfering with the train 
brakes, in case for any reason it became necessary, 
such as wheels sliding, and etc. By opening the grade 
bleed cocks, it makes it possible to alternate, in the 
use of engine and train brakes, in grade service. The 



228 POCKET EDITION OF 

bleed cock being left open on engine and tender while 
an automatic application of the brakes is being made. 
When it is wished to release and recharge, the straight 
air can be applied, on the engine, while the automatic 
is recharging. In this manner the danger of ran aways 
are lessened as well as preventing doing damage to 
tires, by over-heating. 

95. While using either the automatic or the 
straight air brake, in what position should the other 
brake valve be placed? Why? 

Ans. When using the straight air brake, the 
automatic should be carried in running position, so as 
to maintain excess pressure, for if left in other position, 
and there was a leak in the brake pipe, the triple 
would assume set position, and pressure would be 
vented to the brake cylinders. The pipe between the 
automatic, and the double check, being small, the pres- 
sure would equalize high, and overcome the double 
check. Then when it was wished to release the brake, 
it would be impossible as the only air that would be 
released would be the air between the double check 
and the straight air brake valve. It would then be 
necessary to make a further reduction and a release 
with the automatic, in order to get the brake released. 
If the handle of the automatic was left in full release 
position, excess pressure would be destroyed and an 
application with the straight air would be reducing 
pressure in the main reservoir, the brake pipe being 
the same under these conditions, would also cause an 
automatic application, and the same trouble would 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 229 

be experienced in releasing the brake as has been 
previously explained. 

If the handle of the straight air brake valve be 
placed on lap, and an application made with the auto- 
matic (with a leak by the double check) pressure 
would bank between the double check and the straight 
air brake valve, and the same trouble would be 
experienced in releasing the brakes. When using the 
automatic, the straight air brake valve would be car- 
ried in release position. 

96. When should hand brakes be used on the 
rear end of a train? 

Ans. Hand brakes should be used on the rear of 
a train when called for, or when backing in or out of 
a siding, when it is wished to keep train standing, when 
taking the slack, and when cars are set out on a siding, 
the hand brake should be used. Hand brakes may be 
used behind air cars, to help stop the train, in case the 
train is so made up. 

97. How many air brake cars should be operated 
by one engine? 

Ans. All air brake cars in the train should be 
coupled up and in operation, at all times it is neces- 
sary to have 100 per cent, air, this also meaning that all 
cars in the train from the engine to the way car must 
be air, and all cars so coupled up must have their 
brakes in operation. One hundred per cent, air, and 100 
per cent, operative brakes, is the present Inter-State 
Commerce Law. 

98. (a) Do you consider a good light on the air 



23O POCKET EDITION OF 

gauge as important as on steam gauge? How often 
and at what places do you look at the air gauge? (b) 
What position of the engineer's brake valve practically 
tests the air gauge? 

Ans. It is more important to have a good light 
on the air gauge, than it is on the steam gauge, as the 
amount of steam pressure can be told by the working 
of the engine, and the amount of air can only be told 
by either seeing the pressure registered on the gauge, 
or by its performance when in use. The engineer 
should look at the air gauge when making all tests, or 
releases of brakes, Avhenever a reduction in pressure 
is to be made for any cause, and each and every time 
he sounds the whistle, for road crossings, or at any 
time he looks at the steam gauge. The fireman should 
also make it a practice to observe the pressure on the 
air gauge as well as on the steam gauge. Many 
wrecks might have been prevented had this practice 
been lived up too. 

When the engineer's brake valve is in full release 
position, the correctness of the air gauge may be 
observed, as in this position all pressures should be 
equal, and both hands should come well together. If 
they do not stand over 2 or 3 pounds the gauge may 
be considered correct, but if any farther the gauge 
should be reported. 

99. How often and how many times should you 
report work? 

Ans. Work should be reported until done. 



AIR BRAKE 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



231 



AIR BRAKE. 
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 



i. What is a brake? 

Answer. A brake is a mechanical device, or me- 
chanism for retarding or bringing to a stop, the rota- 
tion of the wheels on a vehicle. 

2. What is a power brake? 

Ans. A power brake is one whose operative 
energy is supplied by some form of mechanical power, 
such as compressed air, hydraulic pressure, spring, 
chain, vacuum, or friction. A hand brake operated by 
manual labor, consisting of a lever, or wheel, suitable 
rods, beams, levers, and shoes, is not considered a 
power brake. 

3. What is meant by a continuous brake? 

Ans. A continuous brake in one which works 
jointly, or in conjunction with all vehicles in the train. 
Hand brakes are individual brakes, and can not be con- 
sidered power brakes. 

4. What is an air brake? 

Ans. An air brake is one whose operative energy 
is compressed air. 

5. What was the first form of an air brake? 

Ans. The first form of an air brake was what was 
known as the straight air brake. This form of air 

232 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 23J 

brake was invented by Mr. George Westinghouse, Jr., 
in the year 1869. 

6. Why was it that the straight air brake was not 
satisfactory? 

Ans. The straight air brake was not a success 
'for several different reasons ; some of which were, if 
for any reason a leak took place in the brake pipe, on 
the tender, or any car in the train, the operation of the 
brakes was destroyed as the pressure from the main 
reservoir (when the brakes were being applied), in 
stead of going to the brake cylinders was allowed to 
escape to the atmosphere through the leak. The brakes 
could only be applied from the engine, as all the 
pressure used in the brake cylinders, was stored on 
the engine. 

Another draw back to the successful operation of 
this form of brake was, on a long train the brake appli- 
cation was too slow, owing to the fact that the air from 
the engine had to travel the entire length of the train 
in each application, the release was equally as slow as 
all the air in the brake cylinders, had to pass back 
through, the entire length of the train and out the 
engineer's brake valve. Another damaging feature 
was due to the fact that the first car getting its air 
from the engine first, had tendency to stop first, conse- 
quently the shocks from slack running in were very 
great, and often damage was done. 

8. What form of air brake followed, the invention 
of the straight air brake? 

Ans. A brake invented by Mr. George Westing- 



234 POCKET EDITION OF 

house, in the year 1873, an d known as the automatic 
brake, followed the straight air brake. 

9. In what way was this brake an improvement 
over the other from of air brake? 

Ans. This form of air brake was an improvement 
over the older style in several -different ways ; the 
action of the brake in one sense of the word was en- 
tirely automatic. Each car being supplied with its 
own storage of air to supply its own brake cylinder, 
the application was much quicker. The brakes could 
be applied from the rear of the train as well as from the 
head end of the train, by reason of the fact that a re- 
duction in brake pipe pressure caused them to apply, 
automatically, regardless of where this reduction was 
made. The brakes applying when a train parted, call- 
ed the attention to the train crew that the train was 
broken in two. The fact that each car carried its own 
pressure made it possible for a high brake cylinder 
pressure on each car regardless of the length of the 
train. 

10. What were the objectionable features of the 
plain automatic brake, if any existed? 

Ans. The most objectionable feature of this form 
of brake was, while satisfactory on a freight train, at 
a moderate speed, it was not entirely satisfactory on a 
high speed passenger train, as when an emergency ap- 
plication was desired, with a train of any considerable 
length, the brake application aside from being too, 
slow, produced severe shocks, to the rear of the train, 
on account of the head brakes applying much sooner 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 235 

than those on the rear. The stop was therefore longer 
with a long train than with a short one. 

11. By whom was the quick action brake invent- 
ed? 

Ans. The quick action brake was invented in the 
year 1887, by the data furnished by a series of tests 
made on the C. B. & Q. R. R. by the Master Car 
Builders. 

This test demonstrated that on a freight train of 
50 cars or more the plain automatic brake set the brake 
on the head cars first, with its consequent damage to 
the equipment. 

12. Did this form of brake give the desired re- 
sults in both service and emergency stops? 

Ans. The brake application was as desired in 
both service and emergency stops after its improve- 
ment. 

13. What was it that made this form of brake 
more serviceable? 

Ans. The introduction of the quick action triple 
valve. 

14. Of what does this form of triple valve con- 
sist? 

Ans. This from of triple valve consists of two 
separate and distinct parts, one operating in service 
and both in emergency. The service features consist 
of the same operative parts that the plain triple pos- 
sess. The additional features, or emergency features 
consist of a suitable body casting, in which are found 



236 POCKET EDITION OF 

the emergency piston, rubber seated valve, and brake 
pipe check. 

15. What were the operative parts of the old 
straight air brake? 

Ans. The operative parts consisted of an air 
pump or compressor, a main reservoir, and an en- 
gineer's brake valve, suitable pipe connections, to 
convey the air from the engine to the brake cylinders 
on the cars, an air gauge which registered the 
amount of pressure being carried. On the car the 
parts consisted of a cylinder, in which the energy of 
the compressed air was allowed to perform a work, 
levers, rod, brake beams and shoes. 

16. In what manner were the brakes applied with 
this from of an air brake? 

Ans. The brakes were applied by means of a 
valve known as the engineer's valve, or three way cock, 
so called from the fact that the valve had three posi- 
tions. When it was desired to set the brake, the en- 
gineer turned the three way cock so as to allow the 
stored air in the main reservoir to be emptied into the 
brake pipe, and it in turn carried the air to the brake 
cylinders. The amount of air in the brake cylinders 
was governed by the opening, and length of time the 
valve was allowed to remain in service position. 

17. How were the brakes released, when it was 
so desired? 

Ans. The brakes were released by the engineer's 
brake valve, in the following manner; the three way 
cock was placed in release position, and the admission 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 237 

of air was cut off and at the same time, an opening 
made from the brake pipe to the atmosphere was made 
through the engineer's brake valve. 

18. In the evolution of the air brake how many 
different kinds of equipments, were there? 

Ans. The first equipment was known as straight 
air, then came plain automatic, then the quick action, 
automatic, then the high speed, schedule YET equip- 
ment, and the latest known as P C equipment for pas- 
senger trains. During this time there has been many 
changes in parts, but the operation is on the same 
standard it was when invented. The feature that 
made the brake automatic (the triple valve) has un- 
dergone a remarkable change since its introduction, 
At present we have triple valves that are in themselves 
miniature brake valves, they in serai operation vent 
air to the brake cylinder, much the same as the brake 
valve vents it to the atmosphere. It now is possible 
to realize practically the same braking power on 
the rear car as on the head one, and it is and can be got 
in practically the same length of time. 

19. What were the essential features in the quick 
action brake ? 

Ans. The main features were, the air pump, or 
compressor, to supply the air in the air brake system, 
the main reservoir, in which the air used in the system 
is stored, and the engineer's brake valve by which the 
air was allowed to pass from the main reservoir to the 
brake pipe and brake cylinders, of each car. 

An air guage, that registers the amount of pres- 



238 POCKET EDITION OF 

sure in the drum, and some form of pump governor, 
are also used with this equipment. 

19-a. What are essential features of the quick 
action brake? 

Ans. The quick action brake, or automatic 
brake, consists of practically the same operative parts, 
an air pump, or compressor, a main reservoir, an en- 
gineer's brake valve, an air gauge, and some form of 
pump governor. The additional features consist of 
a quick action triple valve, and an auxiliary reservoir 
for each vehicle, in the train. This auxiliary reservoir 
acts as a storage drum for each particular brake, and 
was one of the distinguishing features (when the auto- 
matic brake was adopted) in the automatic brake, over 
the older form of brake or straight air. 

20. What is the most essential part in the auto- 
matic brake? 

Ans. The most essential part in the quick action 
brake, is the quick action, triple valve. This valve 
consists of all the operative parts of the plain, and the 
additional ones, or emergency features, that cause the 
brake to be known as the quick action brake. 

21. In what manner does this valve operate the 
brake ? 

Ans. The triple valve operates the brake through 
the medium of the brake pipe adding to, or gradually 
taking from, this brake pipe a certain amount of air 
causes the triple valve to move in parts. The piston 
is moved one direction by the air stored in the auxil- 
iary, and the other by the pressure in the brake pipe. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 2£) 

The movement of this piston causes the slide and 
graduating valves to be moved, and when this action 
takes place gradually, and air is vented to the brake 
cylinders, it is known as a service application of the 
brake. 

22. How is an emergency of the brakes made? 
Ans. When an emergency application of the 

brakes is desired, it is obtained by making a sudden 
brake pipe reduction. This heavy reduction causes the 
quick action parts of the triple valve to operate, and 
the brake application becomes much quicker, and more 
severe. 

23. In what manner are the brakes released? 
Ans. The brakes are released by restoring air to 

the brake pipe, when this pressure becomes a little 
greater than the pressure in the auxiliary, the triple 
valve parts move to release, and charging position. 
This action allows the pressure in the brake cylinder 
to escape to the atmosphere, and the same movement 
of the triple valve establishes communication again 
between the brake pipe and auxiliary reservoir, charg- 
ing it through the feed groove to the same pressure 
as is in the brake pipe. 

24. Can an auxiliary reservoir be re-charged, 
without releasing the brake? 

Ans. Yes, the auxiliary can be re-charged with- 
out releasing the brake by using what is known as 
a retainer. 

25. In what manner can this be done? 

Ans. The retainer is a weighted valve, connected 



24O POCKET EDITION OF 

by a pipe to the triple valve exhaust port. When it 
is desired to re-charge, and a certain per cent, of the 
holding power of the brake desired, the handle of the 
retaining valve is turned up. In this position the air 
in the brake cylinder must pass the weighted valve 
in order to get to the atmosphere. As soon as the 
weight becomes stronger than the pressure, the weight 
seats, and the remaining pressure is trapped in the 
brake cylinder, holding the brake applied. 

26. What is the main characteristic of the auto- 
matic, quick action brake? 

Ans. The main feature in the operation of this 
brake is that the brake will apply (when a reduction 
in brake pipe pressure is made) from any cause. This 
acts as a safety feature, and was the main cause for the 
present development of the brake. 

27. What are some of the causes for a brake ap- 
plication without the action of the engineer? 

Ans. The brakes apply automatically, in case the 
train breaks in two, if an air hose should burst, if a 
hose springs a leak, if the hose open as in cold weather, 
a conductor's valve being opened, or the angle cock on 
the rear of the train being opened. 

28. Considering the equipment as an automatic 
quick action brake, what are the parts necessary? 

Ans. The parts necessary are, an air pump, main 
reservoir, brake valve, auxiliary reservoir, triple valve, 
brake pipe and all necessary piping. An air gauge, and 
some form of pump governor, are used with this as well 
as all equipments, although the operation of the brake 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 24I 

would not be materially affected if the engine was not 
supplied with these parts. 

29. If a description of these parts was to be at- 
tempted what part of the equipment bears the great- 
est relation to the same, and should first be understood 
before taking up other parts? 

Ans. The air pump bears the greatest relation to 
the equipment as without air the system could not be 
operated automatically. 

30. If an air pump was to be the first part of the 
equipment the student should attempt to learn what 
part of the pump should first be studied? 

Ans. The steam end, or power end, of the pump 
should first be thoroughly understood, before the air 
end, or compressor end, should be studied. 

31. When studying the air pump (there being 
many different kinds) what pump should first be taken 
up? 

Ans. There are many different kinds of air pump, 
but the ones in general use are the 8 inch, 9 1-2 inch, 
11 inch, and the 8 1-2 cross compound. There were 
other styles of pump such as the trigger form of pump, 
and the 6 inch pump with the reversing gear much like 
the 8 inch. There is also a pump known as the water- 
jacketed pump, used in power plants where the com- 
pression capacity requirement is great, and the work 
on the pump very great. 

32. In general railroad practice what pump is in 
general use? 

Ans. The 8, 9 1-2, and the compound, the 11 inch 



242 POCKET EDITION OF 

being used in some instances but usually where it is 
necessary to have a large compression capacity, two 
9 1-2 inch pumps are favored. 

33. In all Westinghouse pumps, which has the 
greater air compression capacity? 

Ans. The general opinion seems to favor the 8 
inch cross compound, in this respect. 

AIR PUMP OPERATION. 
The Westinghouse 8-inch Air Pump. 

34. In which end of the pump is the power de- 
veloped to operate it? 

Ans. The upper end of the pump is known as the 
power end, or the engine end of the pump. 

35. What is the lower cylinder for? 

Ans. The lower cylinder, or air end is the com- 
pressor end of the pump. 

36. How many parts are in operation in the air 
end of the 8, or 9 1-2- inch pump? 

Ans. There are 5 operative parts in the air end 
of these pumps. They are the two receiving, two dis- 
charging valves, and the air piston. 

37. Explain the operation of the air end of the 
pump? 

Ans. The air piston being connected to the steam 
piston, is forced to move in its cylinder each and every 
time the steam piston moves. The movement of the air 
piston causes a vacuum to be created behind the piston, 
and the air receiving valves lift, the amount of their 
lift, and supply air at atmospheric pressure to the cyl- 
inder of the air end. When the piston is on its return 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 243 

stroke, the air that entered the cylinder is squeezed 
or compressed, to a greater pressure than the pressure 
in the main reservoir. This action causes it to be forced 
by the discharge valve into the main reservoir. When 
the piston has completed its return stroke, it has made 
one cycle, and has performed work on each of its 
strokes. 

38. Explain the movement of the valves in the air 
end of the pump. 

Ans. When the piston moves away from the head 
of the cylinder, in either direction, the air at atmos- 
pheric pressure enters the air inlets, and lift the re- 
ceiving valve from its seat, remaining in this position 
until the piston completes its stroke, and starts on its 
return. The receiving valve that allowed the air to 
enter the cylinder is then forced to its seat, and held in 
this position. While the air that enters the cylinder is 
being compressed, the piston in its movement in the 
air at atmospheric pressure. As soon as the air in the 
cylinder is compressed to a greater pressure than main 
reservoir pressure, the discharge valve unseats, and 
allows the pressure to pass into the main reservoir. 
The piston then returns, repeating this operation. 

39. What is the lift of the receiving and dis- 
charge valves of an 8-inch pump? 

Ans. The receiving valves lift 1-8 of an inch, and 
the discharge valves lift 3-32 of an inch. 

40. Why is it that the receiving valves have a 
greater lift than the discharge valves? 

Ans. In an 8-inch pump the receiving and dis- 



244 POCKET EDITION OF 

charge valves are both placed on the same side of the 
pump. If for any reason it becomes necessary to 
remove the receiving valves it would have to be done 
through the seats of the discharge valves, hence the 
reason for them being smaller. The receiving valve 
are smaller, consequently the greater lift. 

41. What is the size of the cylinders, and stroke 
of the piston in an 8-inch pump? 

Ans. The steam cylinder is 8 inches in diameter, 
the air cylinder is 7 1-2 inches in diameter. The stroke 
of the piston is 9 inches. 

42. Explain the general construction of the steam 
end of the pump. 

Ans. The steam end of the pump consists of a 
cylinder, piston, and a form of valve gear, that gives a 
valve motion, admitting and exhausting steam to and 
from each side of the piston. 

43. How many operative parts are there in the 
steam end of the pump ? 

Ans. There are five operative parts consisting of a 
main steam piston, main valve, reversing valve, revers- 
ing rod, and reversing piston. 

44. What is the duty of the reversing valve 
piston ? 

Ans. The duty of the reversing valve piston is 
to assist the smaller main valve piston to overcome 
the pressure underneath the larger valve piston when 
it is being moved to its lower position. 

45. What is the duty of the reversing slide valve? 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 245 

Ans. The reversing* slide valve admits and 
exhausts steam from the top of the reversing piston. 

46. What is the duty of the reversing valve rod? 
Ans. The duty of the reversing valve rod is to 

raise and lower the reversing valve whenever the 
main piston makes a stroke. This rod is the connect- 
ing link in the pump's valve motion. 

47. What is the duty of the main valve pistons? 

Ans. The main valve pistons control the admis- 
sion and the exhausting of steam to the cylinder of 
the pump. 

48. What pressure is always present between the 
two valves of the main valve piston ? 

Ans. Boiler pressure is always present between 
these two valves, when the pump throttle is open. 

49. What pressure is always oresent on the outer 
ends of the main valve piston? 

Ans. The outer ends of this valve is always 
exposed to exhaust steam pressure, or atmospheric 
pressure. 

50. Trace the steam from the boiler through the 
pump, and then to the atmosphere ? 

Ans. When the pump is at rest the main piston 
after a time settles to the bottom of the cylinder, and 
as it does so the reversing valve rod being connected 
to the top of the piston, moves the reversing parts to a 
position so that the next stroke of the pump would 
be on the up stroke. The steam now if the pump 
throttle be opened, passes by the governor, and through 
suitable piping, where it enters the pump on the left 



246 POCKET EDITION OF 

side, about the middle of the steam cylinder. The 
steam as it enters surrounds the inner face of the main 
valve piston, and is always present in this chamber so 
long as steam from the boiler is supplied. The steam 
in this chamber is likened to the steam chest of an 
engine and is always waiting for proper port connec- 
tions to be set up in order for it to do its work. A 
small amount of steam passes through a small port 
that leads to the reversing slide valve chamber, and 
causes the cavity around this valve to always be filled 
with steam at boiler pressure. 

As the reversing slide valve is now in its lower 
position, steam passes through a port that leads to the 
top of the reversing piston. This reversing piston stem 
rests on the top of the larger end of the main valve 
piston, and the combined area of the reversing piston, 
and the small end of the main valve piston cause the 
main valve piston to be forced to its lower position. In 
this position the upper row of ports in the lower end 
of the main valve piston bushing are open, and steam 
passes under the main piston causing it to rise or be 
forced up in its cylinder. As the main piston is about 
to complete its stroke the reversing valve plate on the 
top of the main piston engages the shoulder on the 
reversing valve rod, raising it, with the reversing slide 
valve up. The reversing slide valve now being in its 
upper position, connects two ports together through 
the cavity in the reversing slide valve, and the steam 
that was on top of the reversing piston is exhausted to 
the atmosphere. The steam that was on top of the 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 247 

reversing piston now being removed, the boiler pres- 
sure that is between the main valve pistons forces the 
main valve piston up in its bushing. This movement 
of the main valve piston causes the lower row of ports 
in the upper end of the main valve bushing to be 
opened, admitting steam at boiler pressure on top of 
the main piston, causing it to be forced down. At the 
same time the main valve piston was opening the ports 
in the top end of the pump to admission, it was open- 
ing the lower row of ports in the bottom of the main 
valve bushing to exhaust. 

The steam that caused the main steam piston to 
move up in its stroke is now allowed to pass to the 
atmosphere, having done its work, and as the steam 
piston nears its downward stroke the same valve 
events take place in the top end of the steam cylinder, 
and steam from the top of the piston is allowed to be 
exhausted to the atmosphere. The pump has the com- 
pleted one double stroke or cycle. 

WESTINGHOUSE STANDARD AIR PUMP. 
9 1-2 Inch. 

51. What is a Westinghouse standard 91-2 inch 
air pump? 

Ans. This air pump is so called from the fact that 
it is more in general use than any other style of West- 
inghouse pump, it seeming to fill all the requirements 
for all kinds of train service. This pump differs 
slightly, in that it is a larger pump as well as having 
a somewhat different arrangement of air valves, as 
well as a different form of reversing valve gear. This 



248 POCKET EDITION OF 

pump is also manufactured in either a right, or left 
handed pump. This fact under some conditions seems 
to offer an advantage. 

52. Why is one form of this pump called a right 
hand pump? 

Ans. The right hand pump is so spoken of as the 
steam pipe connections are on the right hand side of 
the pump. 

53. If all 91-2 inch pumps are not so arranged 
what is the difference? 

Ans. Some styles of the 9 1-2 inch pump are 
furnished with steam, and exhaust pipe connections, on 
each side of the pump, and in this case may be either 
right, or left hand pumps. 

54. What is the difference between the right, or 
left hand pump? 

Ans. A right hand pump has but one steam con- 
nection, and that is on the right side of the pump. The 
exhaust pipe connection being on the left side, and is 
a single pipe. The right, or left hand pump has a 
steam and exhaust connection on each side. 

55. Is there any difference in the size of piping 
used when piping up a pump, and how can the differ- 
ence between the steam, and exhaust connection be 
told? 

Ans. The steam pipe connection is the lower one, 
and is always smaller of the two pipe connections. On 
a right hand pump it is found on the right side, while 
the exhaust pipe is on the left side. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 249 

56. Describe the general arrangement of the parts 
in the steam end of the pump. 

Ans. The steam end, or top end of the 9 1-2 inch 
pump, like all other styles of Westinghouse pump, is 
the engine end of the pump. It consists of a cylinder, 
and a suitable number of valves, and a valve gear that 
controls the admission, and exhausting of steam to the 
piston in the cylinder. 

57. Name the operative parts of the steam end of 
the pump, and how many parts are there? 

Ans. The names of the parts are the main steam 
piston, the main slide valve, the reversing slide valve, 
reversing valve rod, and the reversing or differential 
piston, being five parts in all. 

58. How does the 91-2 inch pump compare in 
size to the 8 inch? 

Ans. The 9 1-2 pump is not only larger in size, 
but has a greater air compressing capacity. The steam 
and air cylinders are both 9 1-2 inches in diameter, and 
the piston has a stroke of 9 1-2 inches. The air valves 
are four in number, two receiving and two discharge, 
they being the same size are interchangeable. 

59. What valve controls the admission of steam 
to the cylinder? 

Ans. The admission of steam to the cylinder is 
controlled by an ordinary form of D slide valve operat- 
ing in conjunction with the differential piston. 

60. What ports does this slide valve cover when 
in its central position? 

Ans. This valve covers three ports, one leading 



250 POCKET EDITION OF 

to the bottom head, one to the top head, and one to the 
exhaust passage in the walls of the cylinder casting. 

61. What duty does the reversing valve rod per- 
form? 

Ans. The reversing valve rod controls the move- 
ment of the reversing slide valve in conjunction with 
the movement of the main steam piston. The shoulder 
and button on this rod, engaging the tappet plate on 
the top head of the main steam piston (when it is in 
motion cause its motion. 

62. What is the duty of the reversing slide valve? 
Ans. The reversing slide valve controls the 

admission, and the exhausting of steam to, and from 
the large end of the differential piston, or the chamber 
known by letter, as chamber D. 

63. What duty does the differential piston per- 
form? 

Ans. The differential piston, and the slide valve, 
controls the admission of steam to and from the cylin- 
der of the pump. 

64. What duty does the main steam piston per- 
form? 

Ans. The main steam piston (being connected to 
the piston in the air cylinder by a rod) causes the 
movement of this piston, and operates the compressor 
end of the pump. 

65. When the pump throttle is opened, what com- 
partments in the pump contain steam at boiler pres- 
sure? 

Ans. The passage in the cylinder casting, the 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 25I 

bushing in which the differential piston works, and the 
reversing slide valve bushing all contain steam at 
boiler pressure, regardless of the position of the main 
piston, or the reversing valve gear of the pump. 

66. How are the two cavities in the differential 
piston, and the reversing slide valve bushing, con- 
nected together? 

Ans. These two cavities are connected by a small 
port leading from the differential piston bushing into 
the slide valve bushing. 

67. Explain the operation of the reversing valve 
gear of the 9 1-2 inch pump. 

Ans. The parts being known, their operation is 
as follows : When steam has passed the throttle valve, 
it enters the pump, on the left side (right hand air 
pump) and passes through a cavity in the cylinder 
casting, up through a square port hole in the different 
tial piston bushing. It exerts its pressure on the inner 
face of the two pistons, of the differential piston, and 
a small amount passes through a port leading to the 
reversing slide valve bushing. Steam from the boiler 
is always present in these two compartments so long 
as the throttle is opened. When the pump is at rest, 
the main piston settles to the bottom of its cylinder, 
due to its own weight, or gravitation, and as it falls to 
the bottom of the cylinder, the button on the reversing 
valve rod engages the tappet plate, on the top of the 
steam piston, and causes the reversing slide valve to be 
pulled down. In this position, the back end of the 
large piston, on the differential piston, is connected to 



252 POCKET EDITION OF 

the exhaust, and any pressure that may be in chamber 
D is allowed to escape. The steam between the two 
heads of the differential piston causes the piston to 
move, to the right, this being the case due to the fact 
that the area exposed on the two pistons is greater on 
one than on the other, naturally the greater overcom- 
ing the lesser would cause the movement to the right. 
As the differential piston moves to the right it carries 
with it the slide valve, uncovering the admission port 
to the bottom of the cylinder. The steam is now 
admitted underneath the main piston, and this causes it 
to move up. As it moves up in its stroke, the shoulder 
on the reversing valve rod engages the tappet plate 
on the top of the steam piston, and causes the reversing 
slide valve to be moved up. This movement of the 
reversing slide valve causes proper port connections 
to be set up, and steam is admitted behind the large 
piston, of the differential piston, or into chamber D. 
Pressure being supplied to the outside of this piston, 
causes the pressures on either side of the piston to be 
balanced. The smaller of the two pistons, now has 
the greater area, and as there is no pressure behind it, 
it moves to the left, and in so doing carries with it the 
slide valve. The slide valve uncovers the port leading 
to the top head, admitting steam to the top of the 
piston. At the same time the slide valve is uncover- 
ing this port to admission, it is also connecting up the 
exhaust arch in the slide valve, with the opposite 
admission port. The steam that forced the piston up is 
now exhausted to the atmosphere and the steam that is 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 253 

admitted to the top of the piston forces it down, com- 
pleting one double stroke, or one cycle of the pump. 

68. In as few words as possible what causes the 
reverse of the stroke? 

Ans. The reverse of the stroke is brought about 
by the reversing slide valve working in conjunction 
with the main steam piston, through the medium of the 
reversing valve rod. The fact that this valve admits 
to and exhausts steam from the back end of the large 
piston, jof the differential piston, causes the differen- 
tial in pressures, due to the area of the exposed surface 
of this piston, brings about the reverse of the stroke. 

69. For what purpose is the small port, in the 
reversing cap nut, connecting this cavity with the top 
head of the steam cylinder? 

Ans. This port is to allow any excess pressure 
that might accumulate in the upper end of the revers- 
ing slide valve bushing (where the reversing valve rod 
works) to escape to the top head of the steam cylinder. 
It also furnishes this rod with sufficient lubrication. 

70. For what purpose are the channel drain cocks 
on the steam cylinder? 

Ans. This affords a means of ridding the steam 
cylinder of condensation. They should be opened 
whenever the pump is shut off for any considerable 
length of time. 

71. Why should an air pump be started slowly? 
Ans. The pump should be started slowly to allow 

the condensation to be worked out and a pressure of 



254 POCKET EDITION OF 

from 25 to 40 pounds to be accumulated in the main 
reservoir to form a cushion for the piston. 

72. Why is this cushion necessary? 

Ans. This cushion is necessary as there is no 
clearance in either the steam or air cylinders, and if not 
allowed to form, might be the cause of knocking out a 
cylinder head, or doing damage to the piston. 

73. Before starting the pump what should first be 
done? 

Ans. Before starting the pump the air pump 
feed of the lubricator should be opened, and a few 
drops of oil allowed to feed to the steam end of the 
pump. The lubricator should then be set to feed not 
less than one drop per minute, while the pump is 
working. The air end should also receive about one 
teaspoonful of good clean valve oil, if no other means 
of lubrication are provided. 

74. Should the air cylinder of the pump ever be 
oiled through the strainer? 

Ans. This should never be done as it not only 
stops up the strainer of the pump but also causes the 
passages, or channels in the pump, as well as the air 
valves to become stopped up, and the air valves stick. 
This causes the pump to run hot and greatly reduces 
its capacity. 

75. How should the pump be run while descend- 
ing a grade? 

Ans. The pump should be run fast enough to 
maintain the pressure, the pump throttle being well 
opened. The pump should not be run too fast or raced, 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 255 

as this will cause it to pump less air than if the cylin- 
ders be given time to fill with air. 

76. Should any low flashing point oil ever be 
used to lubricate, or clean out the air end of the pump? 

Ans. Such oil as kerosene, car oil, carbon oil, or 
coal oil, should never be used to lubricate the air cylin- 
der of the pump as its low flashing point causes it 
to carbonize. The gas given off by these oils is very 
liable to cause an explosion, when subjected to the heat 
generated in the air end of the pump. 

77. Of what benefit is a well oiled swab, on the 
piston rod? 

Ans. A well oiled swab increases the life of the 
piston rod packing, causes a free movement of the rod 
through the packing, and a certain portion of the oil 
being carried down into the cylinder helps to lubricate 
it. 

78. How should the piston rod be packed? 
Ans. The piston rod should be packed sufficiently 

tight to prevent it from leaking, and no tighter. 

79. How should the air pump be taken care off? 
Ans. The air pump should receive proper care, as 

the work done by it is not only very laborious, but the 
lives of all concerned to a great extent depend upon 
the performance of this wonderful piece of machinery. 
The pump should never be raced, sufficient oil should 
be supplied to insure successful lubrication, and all 
necessary work should be reported to keep it in first 
class condition. 



256 TOCKET EDITION OF 

WESTINGHOUSE 11-INCH AIR PUMP. 

80. What kind of a pump is a Westinghouse 11- 
inch pump? 

Ans. A Westinghouse 11-inch pump is a pump 
very much like the 9 1-2 inch pump, except in size, the 
cylinders being 11 inches in diameter, with a 12-inch 
stroke. The reversing valve gear is identical with the 
9 1-2 inch pump, the difference being in the fact that 
it is in proportion to its size. Its operative parts and 
its operation are the same. The operation of the air 
end is the same as in the 9 1-2 inch. 

81. What then is the advantage, if the two pumps 
are so much similar? 

Ans. The advantage lies in its ability to compress 
air, under the same conditions it has about 30 per cent, 
greater capacity than the 9 1-2 inch pump. 

82. What lift have the air valves of the 11 inch 
pump? 

Ans. The air valves have the same lift as the 
91-2 inch pump, 3-32, of an inch. These valves are 
interchangeable in the same manner as in the 9 1-2 inch, 
but the valves of the 91-2 inch pumo' could not be 
used on a 11 inch pump as they are much smaller. 

83. In regards to the care of this size of pump, 
how should it be treated? 

Ans. This size of pump requires the same kind 
of care that other styles of pump should receive. The 
pump being larger would require slightly more lubri- 
cation. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 257 

84. For what class of service was this pump 
designed? 

Ans. This pump was not designed for any special 
kind of service, but was rather designed to fill the want 
for a class of service, where a large compression 
capacity was desired. 

WESTINGHOUSE WATER-JACKETED AIR 
PUMP. 

85. What is a water jacketed air pump? 

Ans. This is an air pump, in which flowing water, 
or water under pressure is allowed to circulate through 
a jacket, around the air cyplinder, to keep it cool. 

86. For what class of service was this pump 
designed? 

Ans. This pump was designed for power houses, 
or places where the work to be performed was of an 
extraordinary nature, such as compressing air to a very 
high pressure. 

87. In what respect does this pump differ from 
other pumps, aside from its water jacket? 

Ans. Aside from the water jacket, there is no 
difference between this and the 9 1-2 inch pump. The 
steam end of both pumps being the same, one part 
interchangeable, one with the other. The air end has 
the same number of valves, and they are the same size 
as in the 9 1-2 inch pump, but are somewhat differently 
arranged, being placed .on top and at the bottom of the 
air cylinder heads. These are the same in other 
respects, as in other styles of air pumps. 



258 POCKET EDITION OF 

88. What is the size of the cylinders in this style 
of pump? 

Ans. The size of the steam cylinder is the same 
as in the 9 1-2 inch pump, while the air cylinder is 
built according to special requirements. 

89. Would this style of air pump be a success 
for train service ? 

Ans. This style of air pump would of course be a 
success from some standpoints, but under certain con- 
ditions would be operated at a disadvantage, that is 
supplying it with water. 

go. What care should this style of pump receive? 

Ans. The same care that other pumps receive, 

and in addition the air end should receive the proper 

supply of water in the jacket to prevent over heating. 

DEFECTS IN THE OPERATION OF AIR PUMPS 

AND THEIR REMEDIES. 

When for any reason, the air pump stops its work, 
the engineer should bring his train to a stop as best 
he can, calling for hand brakes if necessary. He should 
then make all efforts to get the pump in running repair, 
as soon as he is satisfied as to the nature of the defect. 
In many instances pump failures were rather man 
failures, and not break downs. The only time when a 
man is justifiable in having an engine failure (and that 
is what a pump failure today means, as according to 
Inter-State Commerce Law, no train can under any 
circumstance be operated without air brakes) is when 
some part of the air pump is broken beyond repair, or 
replacement. Many roads are today equipping their 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 259 

engines with two air pumps to obviate this failure, 
and this seems in a great measure to have solved the 
question, as well as lessened the work on the single 
compresser. Some roads requiring pumps with a 
large air compression capacity favor the compound 
pump but the leading roads have almost universally 
adopted the two pump idea. 

91. Why do air pumps as a rule fail? 

Ans. Air pumps, as a rule, fail due to their abuse. 
There is no part of the equipment on the engine 
(in the nature of mechanical appliances) that receives 
an equal amount of abuse. 

92. What are some of the things classed as abuse, 
that tend to cause pump failures? 

Ans. Improper lubrication, allowing the pump to 
run dry (the extra strain placed on the small revers- 
ing parts, is liable to break them), running the pump 
too fast, running the pump over ash pits, allowing the 
pump to become loose on its bracket, allowing the 
pump to pound, allowing the pump to work against a 
high main reservoir pressure. When there is some 
defect in the governor, or too great a tension on its 
adjusting spring allowing the pump to work against, 
Leaks that could be repaired, improper method of start- 
ing the pump (failing to wait for the condensation, to 
work out, or cushion to be formed), or neglecting a 
work report on the noticeable condition of the pump 
are things which can be classed as abuse, and tend to 
cause pump failures. 



260 POCKET EDITION OF 

93. If the air pump should stop while in route, 
what can and should be done? 

Ans. It should first be ascertained that the pump 
throttle is open, and that the trouble is in the pump, 
and not in the governor, before proceeding to locate 
the trouble. Reducing the pressure that controls the 
governor will enable the engineer to tell whether the 
trouble is in the pump or governor. Failing to locate 
the trouble in the governor, it can then be laid to the 
pump. The pump may be dry, the nuts on the piston 
rod in the air end may be loose, the reversing valve 
rod may be broken, the reversing plate, or tappet plate, 
may be loose on the top head, the packing rings on the 
large end of the differential piston may be broken, the 
lock nut on the small end of the differential piston 
may have come off and is preventing the piston from 
completeing its stroke, the reversing valve rod may be 
bent, the main piston in the steam cylinder may have 
pulled off the rod, or the pump might have been put up 
with the top head gasket either blind, or turned 
wrong. 

94. What should first be done in order to get the 
pump to resume work? 

Ans. The pump throttle should be closed (if 
open) and the lubricator allowed to feed for a few 
seconds quite fast, the pump throttle should then be 
opened suddenly. This generally causes the pump to 
resume work. A little more oil should then be sup- 
plied to prevent its stopping again. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 261 

95. In case this failed to start the pump what 
else might be done? 

Ans. Tapping lightly on the reversing cylinder 
will sometimes cause the pump to resume work. 

96. Why not tap the reversing cap nut? 

Ans. The trouble is not in the reversing slide 
valve. If it was tapping would do no good as the revers- 
ing valve rod, or tappet plate, would have to be at fault, 
besides by tapping on this cap nut, there is a liability 
of fracturing the cap or causing the threads to become 
stripped, there being a port leading almost to the top 
of the nut, which makes it quite frail. 

97. What should be the first thing to examine in 
case this method failed? 

Ans. The first thing to examine should be the 
nuts on the piston rod. This can be done by removing 
the plug in the bottom head of the air cylinder. This 
too will enable the engineer to locate in which end 
of the cylinder the piston has stopped, and by so being 
informed, he can better locate the defect. 

98. In case these nuts be found loose, how can 
the piston be prevented from turning, while they are 
being tightened up? 

Ans. After removing the bottom head, the larger 
head of the differential piston bushing should be 
removed, and the piston forced over to the smaller end, 
and blocked in this position. Then after replacing the 
head, give the pump steam. 

The differential piston being moved in this posi- 
tion, causes steam to be admitted to the top of the main 



262 POCKET EDITION OF 

piston, and after forcing it to the bottom of its stroke, 
will hold it in this position while the nuts are being 
tightened. 

99. What should next be done to locate the 
trouble ? 

Ans. The reversing valve cap nut should then 
be removed, and the reverse valve rod examined. The 
main piston must either be on the up stroke, or held 
up by means of a packing iron, introduced through the 
plug hole in the bottom head before the rod, and slide 
valve can be removed in a 9-inch pump. If on an 8- 
inch pump the packing rings on the reversing piston 
should be examined*. If the rings are gone, substitute 
with candle wicking until the trip is finished. 

100. If these parts are found to be in good con- 
dition, what should then be done ? 

Ans. With the 9 1-2, or 11 inch pumps the large 
head of the differential piston bushing should be 
removed so as to examine the differential piston and 
slide valve. With an 8-inch pump the top head will 
have to be removed, in order to examine these parts. 
It is not always necessary to do these things just men- 
tioned, as for example; when steam is blowing into the 
exhaust, and out to the atmosphere, it eliminates the 
reversing piston from the trouble. The main valve 
being the dividing line between the admission and 
exhaust ports would be the seat of the trouble. Hence 
to this point, the engineer's attention should be 
directed. 

The packing rings on the main steam piston 



Locomotive engineering 263 

seldom blow bad enough to interfere with the opera- 
tion of the pump. 

1 01. What might be the trouble with the main 
valve? 

Ans. With the 9 1-2 inch pump the blow may- 
be caused by a cut valve or seat, or the seat worn 
badly, or possibly the valve is held from its seat by 
some foreign substance. With the 8-inch, the trouble 
may be that either end of the valve has come off, or 
possibly broken packing rings, or broken stop pin, 
allowing an over travel. 

102. What are some of the causes for blows in an 
8-inch pump ? 

Ans. Loose or broken rings on the main piston, 
reversing piston, or the main valve pistons, reversing 
valve rod not fitting properly in the cap, reversing slide 
valve held from its seat, cut slide valve or seat, or the 
reversing valve bushing cap nut not making a good 
tight fit. 

103. What will cause blows in the 11 -inch pump? 
Ans. Blows in the 11-inch pump are caused from 

the same defects as in the 9 1-2-inch pump. 

104. If the air pump is found to be running hot, 
what might be the cause? 

Ans. Working the pump against a high main 
reservoir pressure, racing the pump, the lift destroyed 
on the air valves, leaky valves, or piston packing rings, 
the air valves stuck shut, the ports and passages in the 
pump stopped up due to the use of too much oil, or 
when using fibrous packing the pump will sometimes 



264 POCKET EDITION OF 

run hot. If the pump is properly taken care off, and 
not required to do an excessive amount of wOrk, such 
as trying to keep up the pressure on a train of bad 
leaks, there will be little if any trouble with the pump 
running hotter than the natural heat of compression. 

105. At what speed does a pump give the best 
results? 

Ans. The best results are obtained by running 
the pump at a speed of from 60 to 70, double strokes, 
120 to 140 single strokes, per minute. 

106. In case the air pump runs hot, what should 
the engineer do? 

Ans. When the pump is running hot, the 
engineer should ease off the throttle, and if possible 
reduce the amount of work the pump is trying to do, 
look the train over and see if there are not some bad 
leaks, possibly there is a leak in the equipment about 
the engine. The engineer should try to cool the 
pump with a quantity of good valve oil put in the air 
cylinder. The pump should then be run slow, and 
given a chance to cool. If the cause is due to some 
defect, it should be located, and reported. 

107. How can the trouble be located? 

Ans. The condition of the packing rings can be 
told by noticing the suction at the air inlets, or the 
strainer. The suction should be good during the full 
stroke of the piston. There being nothing wrong with 
the packing rings, the lift of the air valves should then 
be measured. If the lift of the valves be found correct, 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 265 

then the only trouble could be in the manner in which 
the pump is treated. 

108. In case the pump has been long in service, 
and the passages are stopped up with gum, due to oil, 
how can they be cleaned out? 

Ans. These passages may be cleaned out by work- 
ing a strong solution of lye, or potash, and water 
through the pump. When the engine is to stand in the 
round house for a length of time, it is advisable to fill 
the pump with this solution, and allow it to stand for 
awhile. When this can not be done, the solution 
should be worked through the pump by working the 
pump slow. If the solution is not too dirty it may be 
worked through a second time, after which the pump 
should be rinsed by working clean water through it. 
The pump should be oiled well, and if not equipped 
with metal packing, should be repacked. The use of 
kerosene is not advisable as it is liable to cause an 
explosion, and does not do the work as well as the lye 
solution. 

109. If the pump should work lame, or make 
irregular strokes, where might the trouble be? 

Ans. The irregular pump action is generally due 
to a stuck or broken valve. The valve at fault can be 
located by noticing the action of the piston. There is 
little or no suction, when the piston moves away 
from the stuck valve. If it be a broken valve, the pres- 
sure will blow back when the piston is moving towards 
the defective valve. With a discharge valve at fault, 



266 DOCKET EDITION OF 

the piston moves towards the valve slow, and fast 
away from it. 

no. If the pump seems to be working all right, 
and yet fails to keep up the pressure, what might be the 
trouble ? 

Ans. The trouble may be due to the fact that the 
pump is being run too fast, or that the strainer is 
stopped up. The strainer sometimes appears to be 
clean but the small holes are stopped up with gum 
and dirt. The strainer should be taken off and cleaned 
by holding it under the overflow, and blow steam 
through it. If the fault is due to running the pump too 
fast, it should be slowed down, allowing the cylinders 
time to fill with air on each stroke. 

in. What causes the pump to pound? 

Ans. The pump pounding, is due to some of the 
following causes, such as the pump loose on its 
bracket, bracket loose on the boiler, too great a lift on 
the air valves, tight rings on the reversing piston, or 
the main valve, loose nuts on the piston, or worn pack- 
ing rings, destroying the cushion for the piston by 
churning the air. 

MAIN RESERVOIR. 

112. What is the main reservoir? 

Ans. The main reservoir is a metal drum, cylin- 
derical in shape (generally made of 3-8 inch boiler 
plate), placed at some convenient place on the engine, 
generally under the running board, or between the 
frames of the engine. The purpose of the main reser- 
voir is to furnish a place for the storage of air, used 



LOCOMOTIVE: ENGINEERING 267 

ki all parts of the air brake system. The main reser- 
voir also acts as a trap or catch basin to collect mois- 
ture and dirt in the air, thus preventing it from work- 
ing back into the air brake system. 

113. Is there more than one main reservoir on 
an engine? 

Ans. There is but one main reservoir, although 
there are often two or more drums connected together 
by a pipe. The object of this being to prevent making 
the drum so large that it would be clumsy, and hard 
to place, and secure about the engine. 

114. What is the usual size of the main reser- 
voir? 

Ans. The size of the main reservoir differs on the 
different roads, the smallest permissible on freight is 
4,000 cubic inches, on passenger 2,000 cubic inches. 

115. Are there any reservoirs with a greater 
capacity than this? 

Ans. Yes, on some roads the main reservoirs run 
in size from 4,000, to 100,000 cubic inch capacity. These 
large main reservoirs are generally used in heavy 
freight service. 

116. What is the advantage of a large main reser- 
voir? 

Ans. A large main reservoir permits of carrying 
a large volume of air, which aids materially in charg- 
ing up the brake pipe and auxiliaries, on a long freight 
train, and makes certain a prompt release of brakes, 
after a brake application. 

117. Aside from this added volume in air, are 



268 POCKET EDITION OF 

there any other benefits derived from the use of a 
large main reservoir? 

Ans. The large main reservoir acts as a cooling 
chamber, in which to cool the air after it leaves the 
pump. This allows it to pass into the brake pipe, 
through the brake valve at a moderate temperature. 

1 1 8. What are the benefits derived from cooling 
the compressed air? 

Ans. The moisture in the air is allowed to settle 
in the main reservoir, where it can readily be drained 
out. Thus preventing it from working back into the 
entire system. 

119. What is the objection of the water working 
back into the pipes, triples, auxiliaries, etc. 

Ans. In winter the water freezes, causing pipes 
to burst, in summer it causes rust to form, stopping up 
strainers, cutting valves and seats, and the water aside 
from taking up valuable air space, washes away the 
lubrication. 

120. Why do engines in freight service require a 
larger main reservoir than engines in passenger serv- 
ice? 

Ans. Engines in freight service require a larger 
main reservoir, owing to the fact that these engines 
have a much larger volume of air to control, more 
auxiliaries to charge, and more difficult brakes to 
release. 

121. Why is it that the air can not be pumped 
direct into the brake pipe, thus doing away with this 
large volume of air carried in the main reservoir? 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 269 

.: Ans. This method of releasing brakes would be 
very unsatisfactory, as the pressure being raised so 
slow, would be liable in some cases to fail to release 
all brakes, and even so a large amount of work would 
be required of the pump in a very short period of time, 
which would be liable to cause the pump to run hot. 

122. What is the standard main reservoir pres- 
sure? 

Ans. Local conditions govern this amount, 
generally 90 pounds, with the handle of the engineer's 
brake valve in running position, and 120 pounds with 
the brake valve on lap position (the duplex governor 
being used). 

123. Why is it that a small reservoir with a high 
pressure is not as good as a large reservoir with a 
lower pressure? 

Ans. So far as releasing the brakes is concerned 
it would answer the purpose, but the pump working 
against this high pressure would run hot. This would 
in a very short time destroy the efficiency of the 
pump. 

124. Why is it that a pump will heat when work- 
ing against a high pressure ? 

Ans. This is caused by the fact that the higher 
the pressure to which the air is compressed, the greater 
the degree of heat generated during compression. 

125. Are there any advantages so far as points 
in construction go, in the shape of main reservoirs? 

Ans. The most desirable style of main reservoir 
(if space on, or about the engine will permit), is a 



270 POCKET EDITION OF 

long slender cylinderical drum, as it gives a greater 
radiating surface. 

126. Is it advisable to place the main reservoir 
on the tender? 

Ans. This is not advisable as the pipe connec- 
tions soon give trouble by springing a leak. They 
should, however, be placed on the tender in preference 
to sacrificing the proper volume by placing the small 
reservoir on the engine. 

127. Is the pressure in the main reservoir ever 
called any other than main reservoir pressure? 

Ans. Yes, the pressure in the.main reservoir over 
and above the brake pipe pressure is called excess 
pressure. 

128. What is this pressure used for? 

Ans. This pressure is used to insure a prompt 
release of brakes, a rapid recharge of brake pipe, and 
auxiliaries, and to operate such devices on the engine, 
as are operated with main reservoir pressure without 
interfering with the brake pipe pressure. 

129. What bad effect has water in the main 
reservoir ? 

Ans. Water in the main reservoir takes up 
valuable air space, better occupied by air, causes rust 
to form, and the rust working back into the pipes 
stops up strainers, cuts valves and seats, so that they 
cannot maintain and separate their pressures. 

130. From where does this water come that is 
found in the main reservoir? 

Ans. The water in the main reservoir comes 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 2JI 

from the atmosphere. The atmosphere carries with it 
more or less moisture, which is condensed into water 
in the main reservoir, after being compresed. 

WESTINGHOUSE AIR PUMP GOVERNOR. 

131. What is an air pump governor? 

Ans. An air pump governor is a mechanical 
device, consisting of a suitable brass body, in which are 
found a regulating spring, diaphragm, pin valve, and a 
governor piston, controlling the movement of a steam 
valve, which in turn automatically stops, or allows the 
pump to resume work. 

132. What pressure controls the operation of 
the governor? 

Ans. The operation of the governor is controlled 
by a tension, or regulating spring, and compressed air, 
either from the brake pipe, or the main reservoir. 

133. How many pipe connections is there to the 
single governor? 

Ans. There are two, one admitting the steam, 
and the other the compressed air. 

134. What is the normal position of the gov- 
ernor? 

Ans. The normal position of the governor is 
open. 

135. At what time is the governor in its closed 
position? 

Ans. The governor is in its closed position when 
the tension of the regulating spring is overcome by 
pressure, 



272 POCKET EDITION OF 

136. What is the duty of the square nut on top 
of the body of the governor? 

Ans. The duty of this nut is to increase or 
decrease the tension on the regulate spring. 

137. What is the duty of the diaphragm? 

Ans. The diaphragm is the dividing line between 
the spring and the pressure that operates the governor, 
and controls the movement of the pin valve. 

138. What is the duty of the pin valve? 

Ans. The pin valve opens and closes communica- 
tion between the diaphragm chamber and the governor 
piston, in conjunction with the movement of the dia- 
phragm. 

139. What is the duty of the governor piston? 

Ans. The governor piston controls the move- 
ment of the steam valve, in conjunction with pressure, 
or a spring, when the pin is raised from its seat. 

140. What is the duty of the steam valve? 

Ans. The steam valve opens and closes com- 
munication between the boiler, and the pump, in con- 
junction with the operative parts of the governor. 

141. What is the duty of the hole in the neck 
of the governor? Spring casing? 

Ans. The hole in the neck of the governor is to 
make the governor sensitive, to the reduction in pres- 
sure, which the governor is supposed to control. This 
hole allows the pressure between the governor piston, 
and the diaphragm to escape, when the diaphragm and 
spring returns the pin valve to its seat. 

The hole in the spring casing is to allow any pres- 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 2?3 

sure that might leak by the diaphragm to escape to the 
atmosphere, thus preventing an additional pressure 
being built up on the spring. 

142. How does the steam pass through the 
governor to the pump? 

Ans. When the pump throttle is opened, the 
steam passes through the pipe connection leading to 
the governor. The spring under the steam valve has 
raised the governor piston, and with it the steam 
valve, allowing the steam to pass to the pump. The 
pump in its operation caused air to be compressed, and 
as it feeds from the main reservoir through its different 
pipe connections, a portion of the pressure is also 
allowed to feed to the chamber between the diaphragm, 
and the pin valve seat. When the compressed air 
exceeds the tension of the regulating spring, the 
diaphragm is raised up, unseating the pin valve. The 
compressed air in the diaphragm chamber, and the pipe 
connections, now pass down to the governor piston 
(the area of which is such in square inches that a 
pressure of 25 pounds can seat the governor piston 
and steam valve against 200 pounds of boiler pres- 
sure) seating the steam valve, and causing the admis- 
sion of steam to the pump to be cut off. This con- 
dition exists until such time as the controlling pres- 
sure has reduced below the tension of the regulating 
spring when the regulating spring forces the diaphragm 
down seating the pin valve. The pressure trapped 
between the pin valve and the governor piston quickly 
escapes through the hole in the neck of the governor, 



274 POCKET EDITION OF 

allowing the spring under the governor piston to raise 
the piston and unseating the steam valve. Steam is 
now free to pass to the pump causing it to resume 
work. 

143. How long does this performance continue? 
Ans. So long as steam is supplied to the gov- 
ernor. 

DUPLEX AIR PUMP GOVERNOR. 

144. What is a duplex governor? 

Ans. A duplex governor is two governors (iden- 
tical in points of construction as the single governor) 
connected to a bracket, known as the Siamese connec- 
tion. 

145. What is the object of the duplex governor? 

Ans. The duplex governor permits of double con- 
trol, or controlling the pump with two separate and 
distinct air volumes. It also permits of a ready means 
in pump control from one pressure to another, with- 
out the necessary readjustment of the governor. 

146. In what respect does the duplex differ from 
the single governor? 

Ans. The duplex differs only in that with the 
duplex, there is two regulating heads, and one con- 
trolling portion, while with the single governor there is 
but one regulating head as well as one controlling por- 
tion. 

147. Is the principal of operation the same in 
each of these tops? 

Ans. The principal in either governor is the 
same. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 275 

148. Do both regulating portions operate the 
same? 

Ans. They operate the same in a certain sense, 
but one operates at a low pressure, while the other at 
a high. The adjustment of the heads being different, 
it requires different pressures to operate them. 

149. Does it make any particular difference 
which of the two heads is set for the high or low 
pressure? 

Ans. It does not so far as the governor top is 
concerned, but the desired, and controlling pressure, 
must be piped and connected, to the desired regulating 
top, according to their adjustment. 

150. What is the object in having one of the 
holes in the neck of the governor plugged with the 
duplex? 

This is done to prevent a needless waste of air, 
the Siamese fitting connecting both tops, only one port 
in the neck of the governor being necessary to get the 
desired results. And further only one of the two tops 
is in operation at a time. 

151. With what equipments is the duplex gov- 
ernor most commonly used? 

Ans. This governor is used with the High Speed 
Brake, High Pressure Control, or Schedule U, and the 
Duplex Main Reservoir Control. 

152. What is the pipe connection on the governor 
piston portion of the governor for? 

Ans. This is known as the drip pipe connection, 
and is to allow any steam that might leak by the stem 



2j6 POCKET EDITION OF 

of the steam valve to escape to the atmosphere, thus 
preventing a pressure from forming under the gov- 
ernor piston, in which case it would be impossible for 
the governor to stop the pump when the desired pres- 
sure, for which the top had been set had been reached. 
DEFECTS IN THE OPERATION OF THE GOV- 
ERNOR. 

153. What are the defects in the operation of 
the governor that will prevent the pump from stopping 
when the pressure for which the governor is set is 
reached? 

Ans. The pipe connection leading to the governor 
stopped up, or broken off, the strainer in the pipe 
stopped up, the re-stricted passage in the pipe connec- 
tion stopped up, too great a tension on the regulating 
spring, hole in the diaphragm, diaphragm buckled, leak 
by the diaphragm with the hole in the spring casing 
stopped up, pin valve broken off from its convention to 
the diaphragm, the port between the pin valve and the 
governor piston stopped up, the packing rings gone on 
the governor piston, the piston stuck in its bushing 
(open), the drip pipe stopped up, or frozen up in winter 
with a leak by the steam valve stem, the steam valve 
held from its seat by gum or some foreign substance, 
the steam valve or seat cut, the hole in the valve worn 
large, or the valve broken will prevent the pump from 
s copping when the tension of the regulating spring has 
been reached. 

154. What are the defects that will stop the pump 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 2^ 

before the pressure for which the governor is set is 
reached ? 

Ans. A weak, or broken regulating spring, pin 
valve too short, pin valve broken off the diaphragm, or 
pin valve held from its seat by gun or dirt. 

I 55- What will destroy the sensitiveness of the 
governor ? 

Ans. Gum or dirt, the pin hole in the neck of 
the governor, or the regulating spring, short and stiff, 
making it less sensitive to adjustment. 
WESTINGHOUSE ENGINEER'S BRAKE VALVE 

156. What is an engineer's brake valve? 

Ans. An engineer's brake valve is a mechanical 
appliance, the purpose of which is to enable the 
engineer to apply or release the brakes. 

157. What is the general style of engineer's brake 
valve in use at the present time ? 

Ans. The present style is known as the equaliz- 
ing discharge type. 

158. What are the benefits derived from this type 
of brake valve? 

Ans. This type of brake valve permits the 
engineer to make light gradual service reductions with 
all lengths of trains sufficiently fast to get all pistons 
by the leakage grooves, yet not obtain the emergency 
application, unless it is so desired. The equalizing 
feature consists of an equalizing piston that closes the 
brake pipe exhaust gradually, thereby prevent the 
head brakes from releasing. 



278 POCKET EDITION OF 

159. What are the names of the valves in general 
use at the present time? 

Ans. The valves in general use are the D8, F6, 
or G6, valves. 

160. What is the principal difference between the 
D8, and the other types of brake valve? 

Ans. The principal difference lies in the brake 
pipe controlling feature. With the D8 the excess pres- 
sure valve is used, the brake pipe pressure being con- 
trolled by the pump governor, while with the other 
valves this pressure is controlled by the feed valve 
attachment. The excess pressure being taken care of 
by the pump governor. 

Ans. The positions are the same with all three 
types of valve. 

162. What is the difference between the F6 and 
G6 valves? 

Ans. The difference is very slight, being a little 
difference in the construction of the rotary valve so far 
as the wearing surface is concerned, the ports being 
the same in both. 

163. For what purpose is the excess pressure 
valve ? 

Ans. This valve is to enable the engineer to carry 
a certain amount of excess pressure in the main reser- 
voir, and it also feeds the air to the brake pipe, when 
the handle of the engineer's brake valve is in running 
position. 

164. What amount of excess does this valve 
maintain? 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 279 

Ans. Whatever the tension of the spring calls 
for, usually 15 to 20 pounds. 

165. When the handle of the engineer's brake 
valve is in running position, will air pass to the brake 
pipe until the excess pressure is obtained? 

Ans. No, air will not pass into the brake pipe 
until the excess pressure is obtained. 

166. With the D8 type of brake valve, what 
volume of air does the governor control? 

Ans. The governor controls the brake pipe 
volume with this equipment. 

167. What are the positions of these types of 
brake valve? 

Ans. Full release, running, lap, service, an:l 
emergency application position. 

168. How many charging positions are there? 
Ans. There are two, full release, and running 

position. 

169. How many application positions are there? 
Ans. There are two applications, service and 

emergency. 

170. For what purpose is lap position? 

Ans. Lap position is for the purpose of holding 
the brakes applied, to prevent main reservoir pressure 
from passing into the brake pipe, when it is so desired 
and is the position of the brake valve in which all ports 
are blank, or are covered by the rotary valve. 

171. What is the improvement in the feed valve 
over the excess pressure valve? 

Ans. The feed valve controls the brake pipe pres- 



280 POCKET EDITION OF 

sure regardless of the amount of excess pressure, a 
thing the excess pressure valve would not do. .The 
feed valve is more sensitive in its action, permits of a 
much easier and broader means of adjustment. 

172. What are the names of the two styles of feed 
valve ? 

Ans. The poppet valve, and the slide valve feed 
valve. 

173. On what style is the poppet valve used? The 
slide valve? 

Ans. The poppet valve is used on the F6, while 
the slide valve is used on the G6 equipment. 

174. What is full release position of the brake 
valve used for? 

Ans. Full release position is used to charge 
brake pipe and auxiliaries and to make certain a 
prompt release of brakes, by reason of the direct open- 
ing between the main reservoir, and the brake pipe, 
consequently the rapid flow of air. 

175. What is running position used for? 

Ans. Running position is the position in which 
the brake valve is carried while running over the road, 
when it is not desired to operate the brakes, and is the 
only position in which the engineer can carry the brake 
valve, to allow the feed valve to regulate the brake 
pipe pressure, and maintain excess pressure. 

176. What is lap position for? 
Ans. Previously explained. 

177. What does service position do to the pres- 
sures? 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 28l 

Ans. Service application position reduces the 
pressures in chamber D, and the brake pipe gradually, 
causing a service application of the brakes. 

178. What does emergency position do to the 
pressures? 

Ans. Emergency position of the brake valve, 
causes a heavy, sudden reduction in brake pipe pres- 
sure that produces an emergency application of the 
brakes. 

179. Could the engineer get along without the 
brake valve? 

Ans. Yes, but he would not have the nicety of 
control, when making an application of the brakes. He 
would be unable to release brakes, but would have to 
depend upon the ability of the pump to pump them off. 
and there would be no means at hand by which excess 
pressure could be carried. 

WESTINGHOUSE TRIPLE VALVES. 

180. What is a triple valve? 

Ans. A triple valve is a mechanical appliance 
used in connection with the operation of all automatic 
brakes, and is the medium through which, and by 
which the operation of the brakes is automatic. 

1.8 1. What features about this valve caused it to 
be called a triple valve? 

Ans. The triple is so called from the fact that it 
consists of three separate and distinct valves, in a 
manner connected together, and operating in conjunc- 
tion, one with the other. 

182. What three things is the triple connected to? 



282 POCKET EDITION OF 

Ans. The triple valve is connected to the brake 
pipe, the auxiliary reservoir, and the brake cylinder. 

183. What three things does the triple valve do? 
Ans. The triple valve charges an auxiliary reser- 
voir, applies and releases, the brake. 

184. How many kinds of triple valves are there? 
Ans. There are two, practically speaking. 

185. What are these two kinds? 

Ans. The plain, and quick action, under the plain 
we have the old style plain and the special driver 
brake. While under the quick action we have the 
Type H. K. and L. 

186. What are the operative parts of a plain 
triple valve? 

Ans. The operative parts of a plain triple are the 
triple piston, slide valve, graduating valve, graduating 
stem, graduating spring, and slide valve spring. 

187. What are the different positions of the triple 
valve ? 

Ans. These positions are full release, or charg- 
ing position, service, lap, and emergency position. 

188. What is the normal position of the triple 
valve? 

Ans. The normal position of the triple valve is 
full release or charging position. 

189. When fully charged, how do the pressures 
compare on either side of the piston? 

Ans. The pressures on either side of the piston 
are equal in this position, when fully charged up. 



LOCOM.OTIVE ENGINEERING 283 

190. The pressures being equal, what moves the 
triple piston? 

Ans. A reduction in the pressure on either side 
of the piston moves the piston. 

191. What moves the slide and graduating valve? 
Ans. The triple piston moves the slide and 

graduating valve. 

192. Does the graduating valve move every time 
the triple piston moves? 

Ans. Yes, when the graduating valve pin is not 
broken. 

193. Does the slide valve move every time the 
triple piston moves? 

Ans. No, the slide valve does not move ever} r 
time the piston moves. 

194. What is the purpose of the graduating stem, 
and spring? 

Ans. This stem acts as a bumping post for the 
triple piston to abutt against, thus preventing the 
parts from moving to emergency position during a 
service reduction. 

195. What is the duty of the triple piston, slide, 
and graduating valve? 

Ans. The triple piston forms the dividing line, 
between the brake pipe and the auxiliary reservoir 
and is the medium through which the slide and grad- 
uating valves obtain their movement. The slide valve 
opens, and closes communication, between the aux- 
iliary reservoir, and the brake cylinder, and between 
the brake cylinder and the atmosphere. The graduat- 



284 POCKET EDITION. OF 

ing valve graduates the flow of air from the auxiliary 
to the brake cylinder (in conjunction with the triple 
piston and slide valve) in service applications of the 
brake. 

196. If a reduction of 5 pounds is made from the 
brake pipe, how much pressure will leave the auxiliary 
reservoir? 

Ans. A pressure of a little more than 5 pounds 
will leave the auxiliary reservoir as the pressure in the 
auxiliary must be lower than the brake pipe pressure 
in order for the triple piston to move and close the 
graduating valve., This action is known as triple valve 
lap, in which position all ports in the triple valve are 
closed. 

196. Does the slide valve move on the second 
reduction? 

Ans. The slide valve does not move, until the 
brakes are fully applied, or released, or if an over- 
reduction be made, in which case the slide valve is 
moved. 

198. How much of a reduction is necessary to 
apply the brakes in full service? 

Ans. With a 70 pound brake pipe pressure, and 
standard 8 inch piston travel, a reduction of 20 pounds 
pressure will give a fully applied brake. 

199. These being the conditions, how much pres- 
sure will remain in the brake pipe, and the auxiliary 
reservoir? What will the brake cylinder pressure be? 

Ans. There will remain a pressure of 50 pounds 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 285 

in the brake pipe and auxiliaries, and the brake cylin- 
der will contain 50 pounds pressure. 

200. What must be done in order to release the 
brake, under these conditions? 

Ans. In order to release the brake, the brake pipe 
pressure must be raised above the auxiliary reservoii 
pressure, or else the auxiliary reservoir pressure 
reduced below the brake pipe pressure, in which case 
the triple valve will move to release position, allowing 
the pressure in the brake cylinder to escape to the 
atmosphere, and the auxiliary reservoir to recharge. 

201. What benefits are derived from an emer- 
gency application of the brakes? 

Ans. The brakes are not applied any harder with 
the plain triple in emergency application, but the brake 
application is much quicker, owing to a more direci 
opening between the auxiliary reservoir and the brake 
cylinder. 

202. What is the noticeable difference in the two 
styles of plain triples? 

Ans. The old style plain has the cut-out cock in 
the body of the triple, while the special driver brake 
triple has a cut-out cock in the pipe connection leading 
to the triple. The special driver brake triple is a large 
triple in proportion, having larger ports, and pipe con- 
nections. 

203. What are the dimensions of the graduating 
spring used in the plain triple? 

Ans. This spring is made of Phosphor bronze 
spring wire, number 14. This spring consists of 12 



286 POCKET EDITION OF 

coils (2 1-2 inches long), and is 25-64 of an inch inside 
diameter. 

WESTINGHOUSE QUICK ACTION TRIPLE 
VALVE. 

204. What is a quick action triple valve? 

Ans. This is a triple valve combining all the 
features of the plain triple and the additional features, 
known as the emergency features. 

205. What results are derived from its use? 
Ans. The same results are derived from it in 

service applications that were obtained from the old 
style plain, and some additional ones, when the brakes 
were applied in the emergency, namely: A quicker 
application throughout the entire train, and a higher 
brake cylinder pressure due to the construction, and 
operation of the emergency parts. 

206. What are the names of the parts in the 
emergency feature, or quick action part. 

Ans. The emergency piston, emergency valve, or 
rubber seated valve, check valve spring, and brake 
pipe check. 

207. In what branch of service is this triple 
used? 

Ans. They are used in freight, and passenger 
service, there being but little difference in the triples 
used in either, that being only in size, in accordance 
with the size of the auxiliary reservoir and brake cylin- 
der used, for the car. 

208. What distinguishing feature has the freight 
triple other than its size? 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 287 

Ans. The freight triple has two exhaust ports, 
while the passenger triple has but one. 

209. Why is this necessary? 

Ans. Owing to the position in which the triple is 
often placed on the car, it is done for convenience in 
piping up the retaining valve. One exhaust port is 
always plugged. 

TRIPLE VALVE DISORDERS. 
Location and Remedies. 

210. What is the usual cause for disorders, or 
defects in the triple valve? 

Ans. Dirt, or the lack of lubrication, or foreign 
matter getting into the valve cause most triple valve 
disorders. 

211. What defect will cause a blow at the triple 
valve exhaust port of a plain triple? Quick action 
triple valve? 

Ans. A leaky slide valve, slide valve cut, or held 
from its seat by gum or dirt, or a leak around the plug 
cut-out cock. 

With the quick action, the same defects in the 
slide valve, and others such as a leaky rubber seated 
valve, a leaky check valve case gasket, a leaky body 
gasket, or a leak in the B pipe or auxiliary tube. 

212. What air pressure is escaping to the atmos- 
phere, when a blow exists at the triple valve exhaust 
port? 

Ans. This depends as to the location of the leak, 
either brake pipe, or auxiliary reservoir pressure. 



288 POCKET EDITION OF 

213. What are the defects that will cause the 
leak to come from the auxiliary reservoir? 

Ans. A leak by the slide valve, body gasket, or 
the auxiliary tube. 

214. What defect will cause the blow to come 
from a brake pipe leak? 

Ans. The rubber seated valve, or the check valve 
case gasket. 

215. How can these leaks be distinguished, one 
from the other? 

Ans. In some cases by making a reduction, in 
others by cutting out the triple valve, and watching the 
action of the brake. If the brake applies, and the blow 
stops, it indicates a brake pipe leak. If the blow con- 
tinues, and the brake does not apply, it indicates an 
auxiliary leak. A leak from the brake pipe causes the 
brakes to apply harder, and the blow stops during the 
time the brake is being applied by the engineer, while 
a leak from the auxiliary will cause the brakes to 
release, providing it is a leak by the slide valve, it 
being necessary for the triple to be in release position 
to determine a leak from the auxiliary tube, or body 
gasket. A leak by the rubber seated valve or check 
valve case gasket, tends to set the brake harder than 
is desired, and the blow stops during the time the brake 
is applied. A leaky rubber seated valve causes the 
brake pipe check to chatter, when the triple is in 
release position. 

216. What effect will a leaky graduating valve 
have on the action of the brake? 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 289 

Ans. In some cases it will release the brakes, but 
not in all. 

217. What would be the effect of a loose fitting 
piston packing ring? 

Ans. On a long train, with a light reduction it 
tends to allow the auxiliary pressure to feed by into 
the brake pipe and does not set the brake. If the brake 
does apply, it sometimes fails to release, owing to the 
fact that the air feeds by the loose ring and does not 
move the parts to release position. 

218. What effect has a sticky triple on the opera- 
tion of the brakes? 

Ans. The triple in this condition has lost its 
sensitiveness, and is very liable to go to emergency 
during a service reduction. 

219. What effect on the operation of the triple 
would a weak or broken graduating spring cause? 

Ans. None whatever on a train of more than 7 
cars, but with a train of less would be liable to cause 
undesired quick action. 

220. What effect will a leaky brake pipe check 
have on the operation of the brakes? 

Ans. This would have no effect on the operation 
of the brakes in service, but after an emergency appli- 
cation (the brake pipe pressure all being gone) the 
brake on that particular car would release, by reason 
of its brake cylinder pressure leaking back into the 
brake pipe and escaping to the atmosphere. 

221. What will sometimes stop a blow at the 
triple valve exhaust? 



29O POCKET EDITION OF 

Ans. By tapping the valve cage lightly, or by 
applying the brakes in emergency. 

222. Could train brakes be operated with triples 
in the conditions just mentioned? 

Ans. Defects of this nature only effect the 
particular car on which they are found, and should 
not be cut-out, only in very extreme cases. 
NO. 6 ET LOCOMOTIVE BRAKE EQUIPMENT. 

1. What is meant by ET Equipment? 

Ans. ET equipment is a term applied to an 
equipment for the E, engine, and T, for the tender. 

2. What brought about the necessity for this 
equipment? 

Ans. Necessity (being the mother of invention), 
for many various reasons, made it necessary to pro- 
duce on equipment that would be satisfactory in all 
kinds of service, and different kinds of engines. This 
equipment combines the operative features of the 
combined automatic and straight air, standard auto- 
matic high speed, double pressure control, or schedule 
U, and several additional features, with much less 
piping, and devices in connection with these different 
equipments. The modern locomotive, with its in- 
creased weight, calls for a more powerful brake than 
in the past was necessary. The trains increasing in 
tonnage, and length, likewise make it absolutely neces- 
sary that the locomotive have a positive brake, in order 
to insure successful handling, in modern railway 
practice. The increased weight on the drivers, cali 
for large cylinders, until it was no longer possible for 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 2QI 

a single auxiliary reservoir, and triple valve to main- 
tain an applied brake for any length of time, then too 
the size of the cylinders, with the large piston pack- 
ing rings, used almost the entire volume of the aux- 
iliary reservoir before a set brake was obtained, there 
being so great a leakage by the packing before the 
presure had forced it against the walls of the cylinder. 
It was then apparent that the supply of air for these 
cylinders must be obtained from some other source, 
as well as some provision made to maintain it there 
so long as a brake application was desired. 

Then again in handling long trains, where a brake 
application had been made, and for reason it was 
desired to release, it was always done with an element 
of danger (there being no holding feature) as the slack 
action of the train generally outrun the release, with 
its damaging effect on the load, as well as to the 
draught rigging of the cars. At times the holding 
feature was overlooked in haste, or excitement, even 
when the engine was so equipped, so the damage was 
done, which in many instances was laid to the brake 
equipment, instead of being laid to improper brake 
manipulation. This equipment was designed to over- 
come as many as possible of these bad practices, as 
well as to combine the best operative features of all 
other styles of equipments. 

3. This being an engine equipment, is the opera- 
tion of the train brakes effected? 

Ans. The train brakes are operated with this, the 
same as with other equipments. 



292 POCKET EDITION OF 

4. What is the meaning of the term, train brakes? 

Ans. The term, train brakes, means all brakes in 
the train except those on the locomotive. Locomotive 
brakes are the brakes on the locomotive, are independ- 
ent of the train brakes. 

5. What are the new operative features obtained 
with the ET equipment? 

Ans. (a) The locomotive brakes may be used 
independently of the train brakes, they can be operated 
together, or the train brakes can be operated without 
the engine brakes, or engine brakes can be operated 
without the use of the train brakes. 

(b) The brake cylinder pressure is the same 
regardless of the piston travel, or brake cylinder leak- 
age. 

(c) The brake cylinder pressure is automatically 
maintained, regardless of the brake cylinder leakage, 
providing the pump is in operation, and the main 
reservoir contains pressure. 

(d) The locomotive brakes may be graduated on 
or off at will of the engineer, with either the auto- 
matic or independent brake valve. 

(e) The operation of the brakes is greatly 
improved in service applications, as well as an 
increased braking power, in emergency applications. 

(f) The brakes on the second engine (when 
double heading) can be applied or released at the will 
of the engineer, without the assistance of the leading 
engine, or in so doing without interfering with the. 
operation of the leading locomotive brakes, or the 



Locomotive engineering 293 

train brakes. The second engine can assist in main- 
taining a set brake, while a release is being made on 
the train brakes at a slow speed, thus reducing the 
liability of trains parting. 

6. Why is it that the piston travel has no effect 
on the cylinder pressure? 

Ans. This brake equipment has what is known as 
a distributing valve, the operation of which causes a 
port opening to be the same, during either an auto- 
matic or independent application. This port opening 
supplies air to the brake cylinders, and as the piston 
travel is predetermined in the distributing valve, and 
is always the same, the cylinders have the same pres- 
sure regardless of the piston travel, it taking longer to 
apply or release with a long travel than with a short 
travel. 

7. What are the necessary operative parts, in 
order to install this equipment? 

Ans. The necessary parts are an air pump, main 
reservoir, duplex pump governor automatic brake 
valve, independent brake valve, feed valve, reducing 
valve, distributing valve, double reservoir, two duplex 
air gauges, combined air strainer, and check valve, 
brake cylinders, for engine and tender, and suitable 
piping connecting one part with another, according 
to the relation each part bears t*o the other. 

8. Are there any special parts with this equip- 
ment, by so installing the operative features of the 
equipment are changed? 

Ans. There is what is known as the quick action 



294 POCKET EttTION OP 

cylinder cap, combining the operative features of the 
cuick action triple valve, which when applied to the 
distributing valve, somewhat increases the efficiency 
of the valve's operation in emergency applications. 
There is also what is known as the combined air 
strainer, and check valve used in connection with the 
reducing valve, and independent brake pressure, to 
operate the train air signal system. 

9. Is there any difference in the operation of the 
air compressor, or governors with this equipment, in 
comparison with previous equipments? 

Ans. The operation of the compressor is the 
same with this as with other equipments, but the 
operation of the governor is somewhat different, this 
being explained later. 

10. What provision is made for separating the 
main reservoir from the rest of the brake equipment? 

Ans. A cut-out cock is placed in the pipe connec- 
tion leading to the automatic brake, and independent 
brake valves. This cut-out cock cuts out all parts of 
the equipment from the main reservoir, except the 
maximum pressure head of the duplex governor. 

11. Why is such an arrangement as this neces- 
sary? 

Ans. While not a necessity, this is of great con- 
venience, in cleaning, or repairing any of the parts, 
without draining the pressure. 

12. Where do the main reservoir pipe connections 
lead? 

Ans. These pipe connections lead from the main 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 2g$ 

reservoir to the red hand of the duplex air gauge, the 
pump governors, the automatic brake valve, the feed 
valve, the reducing valve, the distributing valve, and 
to the dead engine feature. 

13. Are there any other branches of this pres- 
sure? 

Ans. Yes, there is a branch leading to a pressure 
log, which furnishes air to operate the bell ringer, air 
sanders, blow off cock, traction increaser, head light 
extinguisher, pin lifter, water scoop, ditcher, and all 
such devices, that are operated by this pressure. 

14. For what purpose is the feed valve? 

Ans. The purpose of the feed valve is to auto- 
matically carr}^ and control a predetermined pres- 
sure in the brake pipe. 

15. To what parts of the equipment does the 
feed valve connect? 

Ans. The feed valve pipe connects to the auto 
matic brake valve, and to the spring chamber of the 
excess pressure head of the low pressure governor. 

16. For what purpose is the reducing valve? 
Ans. The reducing valve is for the purpose of 

reducing, and supplying the proper pressure from the 
main reservoir, to the independent brake valve, and 
to the train air signal system. 

17. To what pressure is the feed valve adjusted? 
Ans. The feed valve is adjusted to two positions, 

70 pounds for ordinary practice, and no pounds for 
the high speed brake. 



296 POCKET EDITION OP 

18. To what pressure is the reducing valve 
adjusted? 

Ans. Ordinarily 45 pounds, yet under certain cir- 
cumstances it may be even less. 

19. For what purpose is the automatic brake 
valve used? 

Ans. The purpose of the automatic brake valve 
is to charge up the brake, brake system, to discharge 
air from the brake system in order to apply the brakes, 
to prevent a flow of air to, or from the brake pipe when 
it is desired to hold the brakes applied, to hold the 
locomotive brakes, applied, and to release the train 
brakes, if it is so desired, to allow the air from the 
main reservoir to flow through the brake pipe, into the 
brake system for the purpose of releasing the brakes, 
and recharging the system, to control the flow of air 
pressure to the excess pressure head of the low pres- 
sure governor, and to allow main reservoir air to 
charge up the application cylinder of the distributing 
valve, in emergency application position. 

20. For what purpose is the independent brake 
valve ? 

Ans. To operate the engine brakes (as the name 
implies) independent of the train brakes. 

21. For what purpose is the distributing valve? 
Ans. The distributing valve takes the place of 

the auxiliary reservoirs, and triple valves (as used 
with other styles of brake equipment) and automatic- 
ally controls the flow of air from the main reservoir to 
the brake cylinders, in a brake application, to main- 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 297 

tain the brake cylinder pressure constant, regardless of 
brake cylinder, or pipe connection leaks, when the 
brake is being held applied, to automatically control 
the flow of air from the engine, and tender, brake cylin- 
ders, when it is desired to graduate off, or release the 
brakes. 

22. What is the purpose of the brake cylinders, 
on engine and tender? 

Ans. The brake cylinders are where the expan- 
sive force of the confined compressed air is made to 
perform its work, forcing out a piston which in turn 
is connected to a suitable set of rods, and levers, forc- 
ing against the wheels metal shoes, retarding the 
motion, or bringing to a stop a vehicle. 

23. How many brake cylinders are there on an 
engine and tender? 

A»ns. There are two cyinders on the engine, and 
one on the tender. 

24. Why is it that there are two cylinders on the 
engine, and only one on the tender, or a car? 

Ans. There are two cylinders on the engine due 
to the fact that with its great weight, it would be 
impossible to develop sufficient power, in a single 
cylinder without making it excessively large, for the 
position in which it has to be installed. The tender, 
or a car furnishes a better place for the cylinder, levers 
and rods, and the weight to be contended with is not 
so great. 

25. When the brake is applied is there as much 
pressure exerted on the shoe as there is in the cylinder? 



29$ POCKET EDITION OF 

Ans. There is a much greater pressure exerted on 
the shoe than is developed in the brake cylinder. 

26. This being true, how is such a condition 
brought about? 

Ans. This condition is brought about by a system 
of suitable levers, which are so proportioned in points 
of construction, that the power of the cylinder is com- 
pounded to the proper shoe pressure for each wheel, 
according to the brake power of the vehicle, and its 
permissive brake power due to its light weight. 

27. What is the braking power percentage? 
Ans. Passenger cars are braked to 100 per cent. 

of their light weight, freight cars 70 per cent., tenders 
100 per. cent., locomotive driving wheels 75 per cent., 
engine trucks 75 per cent. The braking of the locomo- 
tive is calculated on its loaded weight. 

28. How many positions has the ET, H6 auto- 
matic brake valve? 

Ans. The H6 brake valve has 6 positions. They 
are full release, running, holding, lap, service, and 
emergency. 

29. What are the names of the pipe connections, 
to the automatic brake valve, and what is the purpose 
of each? 

Ans. (Main reservoir pipe.) This pipe is to per- 
mit air from the main reservoir to flow to the chamber 
above the rotary valve, and when the rotary valve is in 
full release position, allows air at its highest pressure 
to flow into the brake pipe, producing a rapid recharge 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 299 

of brake pipe, and auxiliaries, and a prompt release oi 
brakes, if a brake application has been made. 

30. (Feed valve pipe.) This pipe connects the 
feed valve to the under side of the rotary valve. When 
the handle of the automatic brake valve is in running 
position, the pressure in this pipe is free to flow to the 
brake pipe, maintaining- a constant pressure, in tne 
brake pipe equal to the tension of the regulating spring 
of the feed valve. 

31. (Equalizing reservoir pipe.) This pipe con- 
nects the chamber above the equalizing piston, and 
black hand of the air gauge, with the little drum or 
equalizing -reservoir. 

32. (Brake pipe.) This pipe connects the dis- 
tributing valve on the engine, and the triple valve on 
each car with the underneath side of the equalizing 
piston or equalizing discharge piston, and the under- 
neath side of the rotary valve. 

33. (Governor pipe.) This pipe makes a connec- 
tion from the rotary valve chamber to the underneath 
side of the diaphragm, in the excess pressure head of 
the low pressure governor, when the handle of the 
automatic brake valve is in either full release, run- 
ning, or holding positions. 

34. (Distributing valve release pipe.) This pipe 
makes a connection from the application chamber of 
the distributing valve, through the independent brake 
valve to the underneath side of the rotary valve in 
the automatic brake valve. This forms a communica- 
tion to the atmosphere, when the handles of both the 



300 POCKET EDITION OF 

automatic, and independent brake valves are in run- 
ning position. 

35. (Application cylinder pipe.) This pipe con- 
nects the under side of the rotary valve direct with 
the application cylinder in the distributing valve 
When the automatic brakes are applied in emergency,, 
this pipe is open to allow the pressure in the rotary 
chamber (main reservoir), to pass to the application 
cylinder, through the blow down timing port. 

36. When is release position of the automatic 
brake valve used? 

Ans. Release position of the automatic brake 
valve is used to charge a train at terminals, and to 
release brakes on long trains. 

37. Trace the flow of air through the automatic 
brake valve in full release. 

Ans. With the rotary valve in this~position, main 
reservoir pressure flows through a large port in the 
rotary valve, direct to the brake pipe, also through 
suitable ports to the equalizing reservoir, and pump 
governor. With the rotary in this position feed valve 
air flows through the warning port to the atmosphere, 
giving the engineer warning that the valve is in full 
release, with the danger of overcharging, and destroy- 
ing excess pressure. 

38. Trace the flow of air through the automatic 
brake valve in running position and when is this 
position used? 

Ans. Running position is used when it is desired 
to obtain the benefits of the feed valve attachment, with 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 3OI 

its' predetermined pressure below main reservoir pres- 
sure. In this position it is possible to obtain and main- 
tain a certain amount of excess pressure, as well as to 
release the brakes on engine and tender or a short 
train, the distributing valve release pipe forming a 
connection in this position allowing the brakes on 
engine and tender to release. In running position the 
air from the feed valve flows through a port in the 
rotary valve direct to the brake pipe, and equalizing 
reservoir. In this position the main reservoir flows 
through proper ports, and pipe connections to the 
diaphragm chamber, of the excess pressure head 01 
the duplex governor. Also proper port, and pipe con- 
nections, have been set up to allow the pressure in the 
distributing valve to escape to the atmosphere, through 
the independent brake valve, the distributing valve 
release pipe, the underneath side of the rotary in the 
automatic brake valve, and then to the atmosphere 
through the direct application, and emergency exhaust 
port. 

39. Trace the flow of air through the automatic 
brake valve in holding position and when is this 
position used? 

Ans. The air flows through the rotary of the 
automatic brake valve, in holding position in the same 
manner that it does in running position with the 
exceptions that the port and pipe connections of the 
distributing valve release pipe is not set up, hence the 
engine and tender brakes do not release. This posi- 
tion is used when it is desired to release the train 



302 POCKET EDITION OF 

brakes, and recharge, without loosening the holding 
power of the engine and tender brakes. 

40. Is there any flow of air through the auto- 
matic brake valve in lap position, and when is this 
position used? 

Ans. There is no flow of air through the auto- 
matic brake valve in this position. Lap position is 
used to hold the brakes applied after an automatic 
application of the brakes. The brake valve should 
never be carried in this position at any other time. 

41. Trace the flow of air through the brake valve 
in service position, and when is this position used? 

Ans. In the automatic brake valve, the equalizing 
piston forms what is known as the equalizing dis- 
charge valve. The brake pipe pressure is always on 
the underneath side of this piston, and equalizing 
reservoir, or chamber D pressure on top of it. When 
it is desired to apply the brakes in service application, 
the rotary in the engineer's brake valve is so moved 
that the preliminary exhaust sets up proper communi- 
cation between chamber D (the pressure on top of the 
equalizing piston) and the exhaust cavity, allowing the 
chamber D pressure to escape to the atmosphere. The 
pressure being reduced on top of the piston, the pres- 
sure on the underneath side of the piston (brake pipe 
pressure) causes the equalizing piston to be raised up, 
unseating the equalizing discharge valve, allowing 
brake pipe pressure to escape to the atmosphere so 
long as the reduction in chamber D continues. The 
reduction in chamber D being stopped, the equalizing 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 303 

piston is forced to the bottom of its bushing seating the 
equalizing discharge valve. This being accomplished 
the brake pipe air is gradually stopped, and the reduc- 
tion in its pressure causes the service application of 
the engine and train brakes. (The manner in which 
the distributing valve sets the brake will be explained 
later.) The service application is used when it is 
desired to apply the brakes gradually, thus making 
much more smooth and accurate stops, with the least 
possible amount of damage to the load, or to the 
equipment. 

42. What is the purpose of the service exhaust 
fitting, at the termination of the equalizing discharge 
valve ? 

Ans. The purpose of this fitting is to so propor- 
tion the exhaust opening, that the brake pipe pressure 
will be discharged gradually with all length of trains 
in a service application. 

43. Under what conditions should the emergency 
position be used? 

Ans. This position should only be used in actual 
cases of emergency, or when it becomes necessary to 
make as short a stop as possible. When using emerg- 
ency the brake valve should be moved to this position, 
all allowed to remain there until the train comes to a 
full stop, and under certain conditions until a signal- 
is given to release. 

44. Trace the flow of air through the brake valve 
in emergency application, position. 

Ans. When the handle of the automatic brake 



304 POCKET EDITION OF 

valve is placed in emergency position, a direct opening 
between the brake pipe, and the atmosphere is formed 
by the rotary valve, and the direct application emerg- 
ency exhaust, allowing a sudden, heavy reduction in 
brake pipe pressure to be made. At the same time 
the pressure in the equalizing reservoir (chamber D) 
is allowed to escape to the atmosphere through a suit- 
able port in the rotary valve, and air at main reservoir 
pressure is fed through a restricted port (blow down 
timing port) to the pipe connection leading to the 
application cylinder, of the distributing valve, assist- 
ing in building up, and regulating the pressure in the 
application cylinder during emergency application of 
the brakes. 

45. When should the automatic brake valve not 
be used? 

Ans. The automatic brake valve should not be 
used when light engine movements are being made 
as in order to release, the tendency is to over charge, 
and the brakes creeping on cause trouble. If found 
necessary to use the automatic under any circum- 
stance, the handle of the brake valve should be placed 
in running position, in order to release. 

S6 INDEPENDENT BRAKE VALVE. 

46. For what purpose is the independent brake 
valve ? 

Ans. The purpose of the independent brake is to 
operate the engine brakes, independent of the auto- 
matic, or in conjunction with it. The brake cylinder 
pressure may be increased or decreased at will with 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 305 

the independent brake valve, or in case it for reason 
becomes necessary, the entire pressure of the engine 
and tender brake cylinders may be quickly exhausted 
to the atmosphere, by placing the handle of this brake 
valve in its full release (or driver brake bleed cock 
position). 

47. What are the positions of the independent 
brake valve? 

Ans. There are five positions, and they are 
release, running, lap, service, slow application, and 
quick application. 

48. What are the pipe connections for, leading to 
the independent brake valve? 

Ans. (Reducing valve pipe.) This pipe connects 
the reducing valve to a chamber above the rotary 
valve, this being the manner in which air is supplied to 
the independent brake valve. When the handle of this 
valve is moved to either of the application positions, 
this air feeds through a port in the rotary valve, to the 
application cylinder and chamber, of the distributing 
valve. When the rotary valve is in release position 
this air escapes through the warning port. 

49. Distributing valve release pipe.) . This pipe 
makes a connection from the application chamber to 
the underneath side of the rotary in the independent 
brake valve. W r hen the handle of the independent 
brake valve is in running position, this pipe is con- 
nected to the automatic brake valve (underneath side 
of the rotary) by means of ports, in the seat, and a 
cavity in the rotary of the independent brake valve. 



306 POCKET EDITION OF 

Aside from the connection between the distributing 
valve, there is a pipe connection between the inde- 
pendent and automatic brake valves, with the handles 
of both these valves in running position, a free passage 
is set up from the application chamber to the atmos- 
phere. 

50. (Application cylinder pipe.) This pipe con 
nects the application cylinder to the underneath side of 
the rotary valve in the independent brake valve. When 
the handle of the independent brake valve is placed in 
either of the application positions, air from the 
chamber above the rotary flows through proper ports, 
and this pipe connection to the application cylinder of 
the distributing valve. When the handle of the inde- 
pendent brake valve is placed in release position, this 
pipe is connected to the atmosphere, through suitable 
ports in the rotary valve and its seat. 

51. At what time should release position be used? 
Ans. This position should be used when th< 

handle of the automatic brake valve is in any other 
position, other than running, and a release of the 
brakes is desired, without affecting the features of the 
automatic brake valve. 

52. Trace the flow of air through the independent 
brake valve in release position. 

Ans. The air in the application cylinder of the 
distributing valve passes direct through the applica- 
tion cylinder pipe to the atmosphere, through the 
rotary of the independent brake valve. At the same 
time the air in the rotary valve chamber (reducing 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 2>°7 

valve pressure) flows through the warning port in the 
rotary to the atmosphere. 

53. Trace the flow of air through the independ- 
ent brake valve in running position, and explain when 
this position is used? 

Ans. The air takes the same course in the inde- 
pendent brake valve in running position that it does 
in running position of the automatic brake valve. In 
this position the distributing valve release pipe through 
its port and pipe connections allows the pressure in 
the application cylinder, and chamber to escape to the 
atmosphere. This position is used when running along 
the road, when standing or when (the automatic brake 
valve in running position) it is desired to release the 
brakes after an independent application. 

54. Trace the flow of air through the independ- 
ent brake valve in lap position, and explain when this 
position is used. 

Ans. With true independent brake valve (as with 
the automatic) on lap, there is no movement of the 
air, through any port, or pipe connection. Lap posi- 
tion is used when holding the brakes applied after an 
independent application. 

55. When should slow application position be 
used? 

Ans. This position should be used when space 
and time will permit of a gradual application of the 
brakes. 

56. Trace the flow of air through the independent 
brake valve in slow application? 



308 POCKET EDITION OF 

Ans. Air from the chamber above the rotary 
(reducing valve pressure) flows through the service 
port (slow service port is restricted) and application 
cylinder pipe, to the application cylinder and chamber 
of the distributing valve. 

57. Trace the flow of air through the independent 
brake valve in quick application, and explain when this 
position should be used. 

Ans. In full service, or quick service application 
of the brakes, with the independent brake valve, the 
service port is full open, and the air from the chamber 
above the rotary (reducing valve pressure) flows 
through the port in the rotary valve and application 
cylinder pipe to the application cylinder and chamber 
of the distributing valve'. Quick service application 
position is used when by accident, or design, it is 
desired to apply the brakes quickly, with the independ- 
ent brake valve. 

58. What provision is made to prevent the handle 
of the independent brake valve from remaining in 
quick service, or release position? 

Ans. A return spring, which when the hand is 
removed from the handle of the independent brake 
valve, returns the rotary to either running, or slow 
service position. 

59. Why is such a spring necessary? 

Ans. This spring is necessary in order to pre- 
vent a quick application, when only a slow, is desired, 
also to prevent leaving the handle in release position, 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 309 

which would release the engine and tender brakes, in 
case an automatic application was made. 

60. What harm would result, in case the handle 
of the independent brake valve was left in release posi- 
tion, and a brake application made with the automatic 
brake valve? 

Ans. The greatest possibility of damage being 
done lies in the fact, that the train is liable to break 
in two at any time, an air hose is liable to burst, the 
conductor is liable to open the angle cock, in case a 
signal cannot be transmitted to the head end, or for 
any reason were the brakes to apply suddenly without 
the action (or with the action) of the engineer, the 
handle of the independent brake valve being in release 
position, the engine and tender would not have a brake. 
The brake would apply but owing to the position of 
the handle of the independent brake valve, would 
quickly release. The engine working, or running away 
from the train, would in all probabilities, either pull 
out a draw bar, or do serious damage to draught rig- 
ging, shift the load, and etc. 

61. Why is it necessary that the handle of the 
independent brake valve be moved by this spring? 

Ans. This is necessary as in case it becomes 
necessary to leave the engine standing with the brakes 
applied, the flow of air to the application cylinder is 
limited. 

DISTRIBUTING VALVE. 
Plain Cylinder Cap. 

62. What is a distributing valve? 



310 POCKET EDITION OF 

Ans. The distributing valve (as its name im- 
plies) distributes the supply of air in the engine and 
tender brake cylinders, in a brake application with 
the ET Equipment, No. 6. The distributing valve is a 
clever mechanical appliance, the construction of which 
will be taken up later, combining all the features 
of the triple valve and auxiliary reservoir, and several 
additional ones, explained later. 

63. How does this valve control the flow of air 
to the brake cylinder on the engine and tender? 

Ans. The distributing valve permits air from 
the main reservoir to flow to the brake cylinders, when 
applying the brake, and from the brake cylinders to 
the atmosphere, when it is desired to release the 
brakes. This valve automatically maintains this pres- 
sure constant regardless of brake cylinder, and pipe 
connection leaks, so long as there remains a pressure 
in the main reservoir, or the ability of the pump is not 
exceeded to supply the leak. 

64. What is the performance of the distributing 
valve similar to? 

Ans. The distributing valve performs its work 
much the same as the reducing valve (combined auto- 
matic and straight air) supplying the air to the brake 
cylinders. 

65. If when standing facing the distributing 
valve (the side with two pipe connections) you were 
asked what these two pipes were for, and to what do 
they connect, what would you say? 

Ans. The upper pipe on this side is called the 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 311 

cylinder pipe, and connects the distributing valve to 
the brake cylinders, on the engine and tender. This 
pipe allows the air from the distributing valve to flow 
to, and from, the brake cylinders, when the brakes 
on the engine and tender are applied or released. The 
lower of these two pipes is called the branch of the 
brake pipe, and connects the distributing valve to the 
brake pipe. This pipe supplies a compartment in the 
distributing valve (pressure chamber) with air at brake 
pipe pressure. 

66. What are the names of the three pipes on the 
left, or opposite side, and to what do they connect? 

Ans. The upper pipe is called the supply pipe, 
and connects the distributing valve to a pipe leading 
from the main reservoir. 

The middle, or intermediate pipe is the application 
cylinder pipe, and it connects the distributing valve to 
both the independent and automatic brake valves. 

The lower pipe is called the distributing valve 
release pipe, and it connects the distributing valve to 
the independent brake valve, through the independent 
brake valve, to the under side of the rotary in the auto- 
matic brake valve. 

67. How many chambers, or compartments, are 
there in the distributing valve reservoir, and what is 
their names? 

Ans. There are two compartments, or chambers, 
in the distributing valve, the names of which are pres- 
sure chamber, and application chamber, sometimes 
called dummy auxiliary, and dummy brake cylinder. 



312 POCKET EDITION OF 

These two compartments are separated by a metai 
partition in the reservoir, and are at times connected 
by port, and pipe connections, set up by either of the 
brake valves, in their different positions, through the 
medium of slide and graduating valves. 

68. How many pistons are there in the distribut- 
ing valve ? 

Ans. There are two pistons the names of which 
are equalizing piston, and application piston. 

69. How many slide valves are there in the dis- 
tributing valve? 

Ans. There are four slide valves in the dis- 
tributing valve, the names of which are application 
valve, exhaust valve, equalizing valve, and graduating 
valve. 

70. Which of these four valves is operated by 
the equalizing piston? 

Ans. The equalizing and graduating valves are 
operated by the equalizing piston. 

71. Which ones are operated by the application 
piston ? 

Ans. The application and exhaust valves are 
operated by the application piston. 

72. With both the automatic, and the independ- 
ent brake valves in running position (with the brakes 
released) what pressure is present in the distributing 
valve ? 

Ans. When these valves are in this position, and 
the brakes are released, there are three different pres- 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 313 

sures present in the distributing valve. They are main 
reservoir, brake pipe, and atmospheric pressure. 

73. Where in the distributing valve is each of 
these pressures found? 

Ans. Main reservoir pressure is found in the 
chamber above the application valve. Brake pipe pres- 
sure is found in the pressure chamber (dummy aux- 
iliary) and in the chamber around the equalizing, and 
graduating valves. Atmospheric pressure is found in 
the chamber above the exhaust valve, and in all ports 
and cavities, on the left hand side of the application 
piston, and on the right hand side, or application cylin- 
der side of the application piston. 

74. How is the chamber around the application 
valve charged? 

Ans. This chamber is charged to main reservoir 
pressure by a branch pipe leading from the main reser- 
voir to the distributing valve. 

75. Describe and trace the flow of air through 
the distributing valve, when an application of the 
brakes is made with the independent brake valve. 

Ans. When the handle of the independent brake 
valve is placed in either slow, or quick service position, 
reducing valve pressure flows through suitable port 
in the rotary of the independent brake valve, to the 
application cylinder, and application chamber of the 
distributing valve. This causes the application piston 
to move closing the exhaust valves, and opening the 
application slide valve. Main reservoir pressure feeds 
to the brake cylinders, until such time as their pres- 



314 POCKET EDITION OF 

sure is slightly greater than application cylinder pres- 
sure, when the greater pressure, and the graduating 
spring, forces the application piston back to the left, 
closing the application slide valve, but does not move 
the exhaust valve owing to the lost motion on the 
piston stem. At the same time air is flowing to the 
brake cylinders, it is also flowing to the safety valve, 
through a cavity in the equalizing slide valve, and a 
port in its seat, from the application cylinder. This 
limits the brake cylinder to permissive amount of pres- 
sure in case there might be a defect in the reducing 
valve, which would allow it to become too great. In 
an independent application of the brakes the equalizing 
piston, slide, and graduating valves, do not move. The 
amount of brake cylinder pressure is limited by the 
amount for which the reducing valve is set, there 
always being the same pressure in the brake cylinders, 
that there is in the application cylinder. When the 
pressure on either side of the application piston is the 
same, the application piston moves to independent lap. 

76. In what manner are the brakes released, after 
they have been applied with the independent brake 
valve ? 

Ans. When the handle of the independent brake 
valve is placed in release position, the air that is in 
the application cylinder, and chamber, is allowed to 
exhaust to the atmosphere, through the distributing 
valve release pipe, the rotary of the independent brake 
valve, the U pipe connection, between the independent, 
and automatic brake valves, and through a cavity in 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 315 

the rotary of the automatic brake valve, and then to the 
atmosphere, through the direct application emergency 
exhaust port. The pressure being exhausted from 
behind the application valve, piston in the application 
cylinder, the brake cylinder pressure, and graduating 
spring return the application piston to its normal 
running, or release position. The exhaust valve then 
uncovers the exhaust port, and the brake cylinder pres- 
sure is exhausted to the atmosphere. There is no 
movement of the equalizing piston, or its slide, and 
graduating valve, in independent release. 

77. In what manner is the pressure chamber 
charged? 

Ans. The pressure chamber (dummy auxiliary) 
is charged with air at brake pipe pressure, through a 
branch of the brake pipe, connecting at the distributing 
valve on the outer end of the equalizing piston. The 
air then feeds through a groove in the equalizing piston 
bushing (called the feed groove), around the equaliz- 
ing piston into the equalizing valve chamber, then 
through proper ports into the pressure chamber, charg- 
ing it up to the same pressure there is in the brake 
pipe. The pressure on either side of the equalizing 
piston is the same when fully charged up. 

78. From where do the application cylinder and 
chamber receive their supply of air during an inde- 
pendent or automatic application of the brakes? 

Ans. When the brakes are applied with the 
independent brake valve, the pressure in the appli- 



316 POCKET EDITION OF 

cation cylinder and chamber comes from the reducing 
valve. 

When the brakes are applied with the automatic 
brake valve, the pressure in the application cylinder 
and chamber comes from the pressure chamber 
(dummy auxiliary). 

79. Describe the manner in which the distrib- 
uting valve parts operate during an automatic appli- 
cation of the brakes. (Service application). 

Ans. When the automatic brake valve is placed 
in service application position a reduction is made 
(through proper ports in the rotary) in the equalizing 
reservoir pressure (chamber D). This reduction 
causes a like amount of pressure in the brake pipe to 
be reduced, and exhausted to the atmosphere, through 
the equalizing discharge valve fitting (brake pipe 
exhausts). This reduction in brake pipe pressure is 
likewise felt on the outer end of the equalizing piston 
in the distributing valve. The first movement of this 
piston (it moves by reason of a greater pressure 
being on the inside of the piston) to the right closes 
the feed groove in the equalizing piston bushing, and 
at the same time opens the graduating valve. This 
movement of the graduating valve sets up port con- 
nections leading to the safety valve, and as the piston 
continues its movement to the right, the fitting on the 
end of the piston stem engages the slide valve caus- 
ing it to be moved to a position to set up port con- 
nections to the application chamber, and cylinder. 
The saiety valve is in communication with the appli- 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 317 

cation chamber, and cylinder through proper ports in 
the equalizing slide valve. The pressure in the pres- 
sure chamber (dummy auxiliary) is now allowed to 
feed into the application chamber (dummy brake 
cylinder) and application cylinder. The amount of 
pressure obtained in the application chamber and 
cylinder depends upon the reduction made in brake 
pipe pressure. 

The pressure in the application chamber and 
cylinder expands behind the application piston and 
forces it to the right against the tension of the grad- 
uating spring. This movement of the piston causes 
the exhaust valves to cover their seats, and the slide 
valve to open the port leading to the brake cylinders. 
When the pressure chamber (dummy auxiliary) pres- 
sure is reduced slightly below the brake pipe pres- 
sure, the brake pipe pressure being the greatei, 
causes the equalizing piston to move to the left, and as 
it moves it closes the graduating valve, stopping the 
reduction in pressure chamber pressure. This move- 
ment of the equalizing piston does not move the 
equalizing slide valve, and the air that is now trapped 
between the graduating valve (in the application 
chamber, and cylinder), and the back of the applica- 
tion piston, causes the application piston to remain to 
the right, until such time as the pressure on the brake 
cylinder side is greater than the pressure in the appli- 
cation cylinder. The application piston then moves to 
the left, closing the application port to the brake cylin- 
ders with the application slide valve. The position of 



3l8 POCKET EDITION OF 

the parts in the distributing valve is now spoken of 
as being in service lap. 

80. Describe the manner in which the brakes are 
released after an automatic application of the brakes. 
(With the automatic brake valve). 

Ans. When brake pipe pressure is supplied to 
outer side of the equalizing piston, it moves to the left, 
against the lesser pressure in the pressure chamber, 
and as it moves, it takes with it the slide and grad- 
uating valves, opening the feed groove in the bushing 
and recharging the pressure chamber. In this position 
a port in the slide valve (equalizing slide valve) 
registers, with the distributing valve release pipe, 
leading to and through the rotary of the independent 
brake valve (when in running position) the U pipe 
connection between the independent, and automatic, 
brake valves, a cavity in the rotary of the automatic 
brake valve, and through the direct application emerg- 
ency exhaust port to the atmosphere. The pressure 
in the application cylinder and chamber is quickly 
exhausted to the atmosphere, which allows the greater 
pressure, and graduating spring to return the appli- 
cation piston to its normal running, or release posi- 
tion. This movement of the application piston causes 
the exhaust valves to uncover their seats, and the 
pressure in the brake cylinders is quickly exhausted 
to the atmosphere through the exhaust elbow on the 
distributing valve. 

81. Describe the manner in which the brakes are 






LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 319 

released with the independent brake valve after an 
automatic application. 

Ans. When the brakes are to be released, with 
the independent brake valve, after an automatic appli- 
cation (the automatic brake valve being on any posi- 
tion except running) the handle of the independent 
brake should be placed in release position. This allows 
the pressure in the application cylinder and chamber 
to flow direct to the atmosphere through the applica- 
tion cylinder pipe, and the central exhaust cavity in 
the rotary of the independent brake valve. As soon 
as the air in the application cylinder is exhausted to 
the atmosphere, the application piston is forced to its 
normal running, or release position, allowing the pres- 
sure in the brake cylinders to be exhausted to the 
atmosphere, through the exhaust elbow on the dis- 
tributing valve. When the brakes are released in this 
manner, the equalizing piston does not move, in other 
words it remains in service lap. Should there be a 
slight leak in the brake pipe, the brakes will reapply, 
and the release in the manner described will be neces- 
sary. 

82. Describe the manner in which the distribu- 
ting valve operates in an emergency application of the 
brakes). Not equipped with quick action cylinder 
cap). 

Ans. A heavy brake pipe reduction in brake pipe 
pressure causes the pressure on the plain side of the 
equalizing piston in the distributing valve to be 
quickly exhausted to the atmosphere. This heavy sud- 



320 POCKET EDITION OF 

den reduction allows the greater pressure in the pres- 
sure chamber to force the equalizing piston, its full 
travel to the right against the graduating spring, com- 
pressing it. In this position the pressure chamber 
pressure is free to flow to the application cylinder, 
through suitable ports in the seat of the equalizing 
piston, slide valve, the application chamber does not 
receive any air due to the fact that the port leading to 
it is blanked. The safety valve is connected by a 
restricted port from the application cylinder, this limit- 
ing the brake cylinder pressure to permissive amount. 
The air admitted behind the application piston 
quickly expands in the application cylinder, forcing 
the application piston, and with it the slide valve to 
the right. This allows the exhaust valves to cover their 
seats, and main reservoir pressure to be admitted to 
the brake cylinders, until such time as the distributing 
valve parts move to emergency lap position. 

83. About what cylinder pressure is obtained 
from 70 pounds brake pipe pressure, in service appli- 
cation of the brakes? 

Ans. There will be a pressure of 50 pounds in the 
brake cylinders after a full service application of the 
brakes under these conditions. 

84. What cylinder pressure will be obtained with 
a 70 pound brake pipe pressure when an emergency 
application of the brakes is used? 

Ans. There will be a pressure of about 70 pounds 
in the brake cylinders at first, but the safety valve 
set at 68 pounds reduces the pressure to this amount. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 32 i 

85. Why is it that a greater pressure is obtained 
in emergency than in service applications of the 
brakes ? 

Ans. When the brakes are applied in service 
application, the pressure chamber is connected to both 
the application chamber, and application cylinder, the 
size of which is such that, the combined volumes of 
both the application cylinder and chamber will 
equalize with the pressure chamber at about 50 pounds 
pressure during a full service application of the auto- 
matic brake. When the brakes are applied in emerg- 
ency, the pressure chamber pressure does not flow to 
the application chamber, but direct to the application 
cylinder, the size of which is comparatively small, 
causing the pressure chamber and application cylinder 
pressures to equalize at about 65 pounds. Also during 
emergency applications, air from the main reservoir 
is admitted through a small restricted port, called the 
blow down timing port, through the application cylin- 
der pipe to the application cylinder. This port is so 
proportioned in size to compare with port in the equal- 
izing valve leading to the safety valve, that the pres- 
sure in the brake cylinder has time to reduce, to the 
tension of the safety valve spring. 

86. Does brake cylinder leakage, or unequal 
piston travel effect the brake cylinder pressure?. Why? 

Ans. These things do not effect the cylinder 
pressure, as the main reservoir furnishes the air that 
fills the brake cylinders, and this supply is practically 
unlimited. The piston travel may effect the brake 



322 POCKET EDITION OF 

leverage to a certain extent, but the brake cylinders 
receive the same pressure so far as equalization is 
concerned. The pressure chamber, application 
chamber, and application cylinder volumes is prac- 
tically constant. A leak in the application cylinder 
would allow the brakes to release, while a leak in the 
brake cylinders would cause the pressure in the appli- 
cation cylinder to keep the application piston to the 
right, which when in this position allows the slide 
valve to remain open supplying - air from the main 
reservoir to the leak. 

87. Is there any great advantage gained from the 
use of the quick action cylinder cap? 

Ans. This quick action cap acts much the same 
as the quick action triple, in that it causes serial appli- 
cation of the brakes, when double heading, and it is 
desired to use emergency application. The operation 
of the quick action cylinder cap will be taken up later. 
SAFETY VALVE. 

88. What is the safety valve? 

Ans. The safety valve, is a mechanical appliance, 
consisting of a suitable brass body in which are found 
a valve, stem, and a regulating or tension spring. 

89. For what purpose was the safety valve 
designed? 

Ans. The safety valve, as its name implies, was 
designed to prevent excessive brake cylinder pressure, 
and to perform the functions of the high speed reduc- 
ing valve, when high speed brake pressures, were 
being used. 



LOCOMOTIVE 'ENGINEERING 323 

go. To what part of the equipment is the safety 
valve connected with the ET equipment? 

Ans. The safety valve is connected to the appli- 
cation cylinder of the distributing valve, and is in 
communication with this pressure at all times except 
during automatic service lap. 

91. To what pressure is the safety valve adjusted? 
Ans. The safety valve is adjusted to 68 pounds, 

but should be re-adjusted to from 35 to 40 pounds 
when an engine is being hauled dead in the train (dead 
engine feature cut in), there being no water in the 
boiler. 

QUICK ACTION CYLINDER CAP. 

92. What is the quick action cylinder cap? 
Ans. The quick action cylinder cap is a 

mechanical contrivance, consisting of a suitable cast 
body, in which are operated a series of check valves, in 
connection with tension springs. This device is made 
to bolt to the outer head of the equalizing piston bush- 
ing, in the distributing valve,' and its purpose is to 
assist the triple valves produce serial action of emerg- 
ency application of the brakes when it is so desired. 

93. Does this device operate an any other time 
except in emergency. 

Ans. This device does not operate at any other 
time except in emergency. 

94. Why is it necessary that this device be used? 
Ans. It is necessary to use this device to assist 

in obtaining emergency applications of the brakes, 
when two or more engines are coupled together. 



2,24 POCKET EDITION OF 

95. In what manner does this device assist in this 
performance? 

Ans. By actuating quick action in the same man- 
ner that a quick action triple valve does. 

96. Does the operation of this device increase the 
brake cylinder pressure, as in the case of the quick 
action triple valve? 

Ans. No, as the brake cylinder pressure (with 
the ET equipment) is governed by the application 
cylinder pressure in the distributing valve. 

97. Is there any advantage in the use of this 
device, over the quick action triple valve? 

Ans. The only advantage in its use lies in the 
fact that it is less sensitive, and consequently not so 
liable to cause undesired quick action. 

98. How is it then that results are obtained, if 
this device be less sensitive? 

Ans. The quick action cylinder cap is much 
closer to the brake valve, and is of course effected by a 
heavy brake pipe reduction, much easier than the 
triple valve would be (as installed in the ordinary brake 
equipment). This reduction being felt produces the 
results for which it was designed, without the sensi- 
tive features of the quick action triple valve. 

99. When the distributing valve is so equipped, 
is there, or should there be, a different method followed 
in handling? 

Ans. The equipment should be handled in the 
same manner as though the distributing valve was not 
so equipped. The quick action cylinder performs no 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 325 

function in the brake application, only in emergency, 
and requires no special brake valve manipulation, in 
order to produce the desired results. 

100. Describe the manner in which the quick 
action cylinder cap operates? 

Ans. When the handle of the automatic brake 
valve is placed in emergency application position, the 
heavy brake pipe reduction is felt in the chamber 
around the plain side of the equalizing piston in the 
distributing valve. This allows the equalizing piston 
to move to the right, and as it does so it strikes the 
stem of the slide valve in the quick action cylinder 
cap, compressing the graduating spring in connec- 
tion with this valve. The fact that this spring is com- 
pressed allows a movement to the slide valve which 
uncovers the port in its seat, and allows brake pipe 
pressure to flow to the check valve, in the lower part 
of the cap. This pressure unseats the check valve, and 
allows the brake pipe pressure to flow to the brake 
cylinders through a port in the distributing valve 
body. The local brake pipe reduction in turn causes 
serial application of all triples throughout the train. 

1 01. What takes place when the brakes are 
released so far as the quick action cylinder cap is con- 
cerned? 

Ans. The graduating valve returns the slide 
valve to its normal position, covering the port in its 
seat, and the spring under the check valve returns the 
check valve to its normal position. 

102. Is it absolutely necessary that the ET 



326 POCKET EDITION OF 

equipment be equipped with this device, in order to 
insure emergency? 

Ans. So long as a single engine is used on a 
train it would not be necessary, but in case of double 
heading, emergency application of the brakes on the 
train might not be obtained, owing to the length of 
crooked piping, and the frictional resistance offered 
to the air in its travel through the two engines might 
prevent emergency. 

B 6 FEED VALVE. 

103. What is a feed valve, as spoken of in con- 
nection with air brake equipment? 

Ans. A feed valve is a mechanical appliance, 
consisting of a suitable cast body in which are found, 
several different parts, namely: Regulating spring 
diaphragm, pin valve, supply valve, and piston. The 
feed valve, is a form of brake pipe control, or brake 
pipe governor, limiting the brake pipe pressure to a 
predetermined standard. 

104. How does the B6 feed valve differ from 
other styles of feed valves? 

Ans. The B6 feed valve aside from several points 
in construction is the same as other styles of feed 
valves. The main feature in this valve's construc- 
tion is, a ready means of changing the adjustment of 
the valve from high to low, or from low to high pres- 
sure as is desired. 

105. Explain this feature of adjustment. 

Ans. The adjusting nut is provided with a hand 
wheel, the adjusting nut operating in a quick thread. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 327 

• 

The case of the adjusting nut has two lugs, or &ns, so 
placed on its body that by turning the' adjusting screw- 
to one, gives a high brake pipe pressure, to the other 
gives a low brake pipe pressure. 

106. Is there any particular point to which the 
feed valve is attached? 

Ans. The feed valve is fastened to a bracket in 
the pipe connection between the main reservoir and 
the engineer's brake valve. 

107. Why is it necessary to fasten the feed valve 
to a bracket, and not directly to the engineer's brake 
valve as is done with other styles of equipment? 

Ans. The feed valve is so fastened in order that 
it may be easily removed, and being in the pipe con- 
nection is out of the way of the man on the seat. 

108. What two operative parts are there in the 
feed valve? 

Ans. The feed valve consists of a supply portion, 
and a regulating portion. 

109. What are the duties of the regulating parts 
of the valve? 

Ans. The regulating parts control the move- 
ment of the supply valve piston, and the supply valve, 
when the port in the seat of the supply valve is eithei 
open or closed. 

no. Trace the flow of air through the feed valve 
in its open position. 

Ans. Air from the main reservoir flows into a 
chamber, in which is found the supply valve piston, 
causing this piston to move to the left, compressing a 



328 POCKET EDITION OF 

spring behind his piston. As the piston moves it 
carries with it a slide valve, uncovering a port in its 
seat, that allows main reservoir pressure to feed 
through to the regulating parts. At the same time the 
air is feeding through this port in the slide valve seat 
it is also passing around the piston (which is not an 
airtight fit), through a port leading to the pin valve in 
the regulating part. The air admitted in these two 
ways flows through a port in the case, leading to the 
brake pipe connections (known as the feed valve pipe). 

in. What causes the flow of air from the main 
reservoir to stop? 

Ans. When the pressure in the feed valve pipe, 
and on the diaphragm in the regulating part, exceeds 
the tension of the regulating spring, this spring 
becomes slightly compressed, and in doing so alows 
the pin valve to seat. 

The main reservoir air continues to leak by the 
supply valve piston, and it finding the pin valve closed 
quickly equalizes with the pressure on the opposite 
side of the piston. The spring behind the piston then 
forces the piston to the left, carrying with it the slide 
valve, which covers the port in its seat, stopping the 
flow of air from the main reservoir to the feed valve 
pipe. 

112. What causes the feed valve to again open, 
and supply air to the feed valve pipe? 

Ans. The diaphragm chamber, always being in 
communication with the feed valve pipe, feels any 
reduction in the feed valve pipe pressure, and as soon 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 329 

as there is a noticeable reduction in this pressure the 
regulating spring being compressed, is then allowed to 
return to its normal condition. This action of the 
spring straightening out causes the pin valve to be 
forced open against the slight tension of its spring. 
The balance of pressures on either side of the supply 
valve piston being destroyed, the greater main reser- 
voir pressure forces the piston to the left again and 
with it the slide valve opening the. port in its seat, 
supplying air to the feed valve pipe as before 
explained. 

113. Is there any advantage in this style of feed 
valve over a style called the Poppet valve? 

Ans. The main advantage lies in the fact, that 
with the slide valve type a wide open charging port is 
maintained longer with the slide valve type, owing 
to the regulating features of the two valves. With the 
Poppet valve the supply port began to close as soon 
as there was tension put on the regulating spring, 
while with the slide valve type the pressure for which 
the tension spring is set must be reached before the 
slide valve closed the port. 

C6 REDUCING VALVE. 

114. Is there any difference between the reducing 
valve, and the feed valve? 

^\.ns. The only difference lies ir the manner of 
adjustment. The operation of one is identical with the 
other. The reducing valve is used in connection with 
the independent brake valve, while the feed valve is 



330 POCKET EDITION OF 

used in connection with brake pipe control, in the 
automatic brake valve. 

115. If these valves be much the same why are 
they not called the same? 

Ans. The reducing valve is so called in order to 
distinguish it from the feed valve, when reporting 
work. 

116. In case for reason it became necessary to 
change the reducing valve to feed valve bracket, would 
the operation of the reducing valve answer the purpose 
of the feed valve ? 

Ans. The reducing valve would fill the wants of 
the feed valve, all that would be necessary in making 
this change would be to adjust the reducing valve to 
the desired brake pipe pressure, put a blind gasket in 
the reducing valve bracket, to prevent a waste of main 
reservoir air, and proceed. 

117. This change being made what effect would 
it have on the operation of the independent brake? 

Ans. It would be impossible to apply the brakes 
on the engine and tender with the independent brake 
valve, all other features of the independent brake 
would remain the same. 

118. Suppose by accident or design the feed 
valve was placed on the reducing valve bracket, and 
the reducing valve was placed on the feed valve 
bracket, what effect would this change have on the 
operation of the brakes? (Feed valve adjusted to 70 
pounds, and reducing valve adjusted to 45 pounds.) 

Ans. The reducing valve set at 45 pounds would 



Locomotive engineering 331 

limit the brake pipe pressure to that amount, an auto- 
matic application of the brakes could be made, the 
cylinder pressure corresponding to equalization of this 
pressure in the distributing valve parts. The feed 
valve being set at 70 pounds, would in a quick service 
application of the brakes with the independent brake 
valve, give too great a cylinder pressure. The safety 
valve adjusted to 68 pounds could not reduce cylinder 
pressure below this amount, and the results would be 
slid flat wheels. 

119. In case this condition should exist, what 
should be done? 

Ans. Each valve should be adjusted to its proper 
pressure, regardless of the change made in the loca- 
tion. 

SF-4 PUMP GOVERNOR. 

120. What is a pump governor? 

Ans. A pump governor is a mechanical appli- 
ance, consisting of a suitable brass body, in which are 
found following operative parts; a regulating spring, 
diaphragm, pin valve, governor piston, and steam 
valve. 

121. For what purpose is a pump governor? 
Ans. A pump governor is for the purpose of giv- 
ing the pump automatic control. 

122. Where is the pump governor generally 
located? 

Ans: The pump governor is generally located 
outside of the cab, in the steam pipe between the 
boiler and the pump. 



33 2 POCKET EDITION OP 

123. Explain the general arrangement of the 
SF-4 pump governor. 

Ans. This governor is of the duplex type, having 
two regulating tops, connected to a Siamese fitting, 
having one stem valve portion. 

124. Are the diaphragm portions, or regulating 
portions, designed any different from the ordinary 
duplex governor? 

Ans. Yes, the low pressure portion, or low pres- 
sure head, is what is known as the excess pressure 
head of the governor. This portion of the governor 
has two pipe connections leading to it, one a main 
reservoir pipe connection, the other a feed valve pipe 
connection. The maximum pressure, or high pressure 
head, is identical with the ordinary governor, it having 
but one connection, and that being a main reservoir 
pressure connection. 

125. What is meant by the term (excess pres-. 
sure) head of the governor? 

Ans. This term has reference to the excess pres- 
sure spring, on top of the diaphragm, in the governor. 
Through the medium of this spring, and the feed valve 
pipe connection, it is possible to maintain an excess 
pressure equal to the tension of this spring (gener- 
ally 20 pounds), regardless of the fact that the brake 
pipe pressure is above normal, or standard (in which 
case excess pressure was destroyed with the ordinary 
duplex governor). 

126. In what positions of the automatic brake 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 333 

valve does the excess pressure head of the governor 
have control of the pump? 

Ans. This head of the governor has control of 
the pump, when the handle of the automatic brake 
valve is in full release, running, or holding positions. 

127. In what positions of the automatic brake 
valve does this head of the governor loose control 
of the pump? 

Ans. The excess pressure head of the governor 
looses control of the pump, when the handle of the 
automatic brake valve is in either lap, service, or 
emergency positions. 

128. If this be the case, what has control of the 
pump in these positions of the automatic brake valve? 

Ans. When the handle of the automatic brake 
valve is in either lap, service, or emergency positions, 
the maximum pressure, or high pressure head of the 
governor has control of the pump. 

129. When the handle of the automatic brake 
valve is in either full release, running, or holding posi- 
tion, what pressure is exerted on the diaphragm of the 
excess pressure head of the governor? 

Ans. When the automatic brake valve is in 
either of these positions, air from the main reservoir 
flows through the automatic brake valve, and a pipe 
connection leading to the underneath side of the dia- 
phragm, also air from the feed valve pipe flows 
through a pipe connection leading to its connection at 
the top of the governor, in addition to the air pres- 



334 POCKET EDITION OF 

sures exerted on the diaphragm. The excess pressure 
spring exerts itself on the top of the diaphragm. 

130. What is the adjustment of the spring? 

Ans. The excess pressure spring in the low pres- 
sure governor is adjusted to 20 pounds. This pressure 
sometimes varies, but in case the spring is light, a 
greater tension can be put on it by screwing down 
on the regulating nut. 

131. What two pressures are there acting on top 
of the diaphragm, in the excess pressure head of the 
governor? 

Ans. The pressure of the feed valve pipe (brake 
pipe) plus the tension of the excess pressure spring. 

132. What pressure overcomes this spoken of 
pressure, and how great a pressure does it require to 
raise the diaphragm, in order that the governor can 
stop the pump? 

Ans. It requires a greater pressure than the 
combined pressure of the feed valve, and excess pres- 
sure spring pressure underneath the diaphragm to 
overcome these spoken of pressures, as for example, 
with 70 pounds pressure from the feed valve pipe plus 
the 20 pound spring, acting on top of the diaphragm 
it would require a little over 90 pounds of main reser- 
voir pressure to raise the diaphragm against this com- 
bined pressure, and thus allow the governor to stop 
the pump. 

133. In what way does the feed valve variation 
of pressure effect the operation of the excess pressure 
head of the governor? 



Locomotive engineering 335 

Ans. When the adjustment of the feed valve is 
changed from one pressure to another, such as when 
using the high or low pressures, the added feed valve 
pressure (or subtracted), on top of the excess pressure 
spring, and diaphragm, causes the governoi to auto- 
matically adjust itself to the required pressure, in 
order to maintain 20 pounds of excess in running 
position. 

134. In what way is this an advantage? 

Ans. This is a decided advantage in that it 
always insures a main reservoir pressure sufficient to 
maintain the 20 pounds of excess pressure. Its opera- 
tion being automatic makes less trouble when chang- 
ing from one standard to the other as well as possible 
troubles arising from a failure to cut out the high main 
reservoir pressure when reducing the pressures to the 
lowest standard. 

135. To what pressure is the maximum pressure 
head of the governor connected? 

Ans. This governor is connected to main reser- 
voir pressure at some convenient point back of the 
main reservoir cut-out cock. 

136* Is there any difference in the operation of 
this governor to the excess pressure governor? 

Ans. There is practically no difference in as far 
as shutting off the supply of steam to the pump is con- 
cerned, but this governor has not the excess pressure 
spring, or any of its features, as just spoken of. 

137. When does this governor stop the pump? 

Ans. This governor takes control of the pump at 



33^ POCKET EDITION OF 

such times as when the low pressure head is cut-out, 
by the position of the engineer's brake valve, or at 
times when the tension spring, through accident or 
design, was adjusted lower than the regulating fea- 
tures of the low pressure, or (excess pressure head). 
„ 138. Is the maximum pressure head controlled in 
any way by the engineer's brake valve? 

Ans. No, as this governor is in no way connected 
to, or through, the engineer's brake valve. 

139. Why is it necessary to have two main reser- 
voir controls? 

Ans. This is necessary in modern train service 
as when running along the road (the handle of the 
engineer's brake valve in running position) 20 pounds 
of excess is sufficient to supply brake pipe leaks, 
should any exist, and to operate all air operated 
devices without interfering with the brake pipe pres- 
sure. But when the brakes have been applied, the 20 
pounds, plus the 20 pounds gained by reason of the 
brake application is in some cases not sufficient to get 
a prompt release of brakes on an exceptionally long 
train, hence the necessity for a greater main reservoir 
pressure, and the double control. It is not advisable 
to have the pump working at all times against high 
main reservoir pressure, so the double control makes it 
possible to obtain these pressures as they are desired. 

140. How is it that the low pressure governor 
automatically cuts out of service when the brake valve 
is moved to any position beyond holding position? 

Ans. The rotary in the engineer's brake valve 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 337 

breaks the port and pipe connection, when the valve 
is moved to any position beyond holding, hence as 
there is no air in the diaphragm chamber, the governor 
becomes inoperative. 

DEAD ENGINE FEATURE. 

141. What is the dead engine feature? 

Ans. The dead engine feature is a form of 
mechanical appliance, consisting of the following 
operative parts, a suitable cast body, in which are 
found a compartment containing curled hair that 
acts as a strainer, a check valve, and a regulating- 
spring. The spring has but a light tension and is for 
the purpose of holding the check valve to its seat, 
The hair strainer and restricted passage in the body of 
this device causes a very gradual flow of air from the 
brake pipe to the main reservoir. 

142. For what purpose is the dead engine feature 
used? 

Ans. This device is used (when cut-in) to enable 
the pump on the live engine to charge up the main 
reservoir, so that the brakes on the dead engine may 
be operated in conjunction with other brakes on the 
train. 

143. Why is this necessary? 

Ans. This is necessary due to the fact that the 
air for the brake cylinders, with the ET equipment 
comes from the main reservoir. The engine being- 
dead or otherwise unable to supply its own air, when 
being hauled in a train would have no brake were it 
not for this feature. 



33§ POCKET EDITION OF 

144. About what pressure is in the main reser- 
voir, when the dead engine feature is cut-in? 

Ans. The pressure varies with the tension of the 
spring on top of the check valve, being considerable 
less than the brake pipe pressure. 

145. Suppose the boiler contained no water, what 
would be advisable, when using this feature, and no 
one was riding the engine? 

Ans. It would be advisable to reduce the tension 
on the regulating spring of the safety valve, so that it 
would allow but about 30 or 35 pounds brake cylinder 
pressure. 

146. Why would this be necessary? 

Ans. The boiler containing no water would be 
considerable lighter, and this would in a certain sense 
increase the braking power, which would be liable to 
cause the drivers to lock and slide (flat wheels the 
result). 

147. For what purpose is the one-inch cut-out 
cock in the brake pipe, underneath the engineer's 
brake valve? 

Ans. The cut-out cock is for the purpose of cut- 
ting out the automatic brake valve, when double head- 
ing, or for any other reason such as when cleaning 
certain parts of the equipment, when hauling the 
engine dead in a train, the dead engine feature cut-in, 
or at a time when the engine was broken away from 
the tender, and it was- wished to operate the brakes. 
This cut-out cock either cuts out, or cuts in the brake 
pipe as is desired. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 339 

148. For what purpose is the strainer in the brake 
pipe underneath the brake valve? 

Ans. This strainer is to prevent foreign matter 
from working back into the distributing valve, thus 
seriously effecting the operation of the distributing 
valve. 

AIR SIGNAL SYSTEM. 

149. What is the air signal system? 

Ans. This is a system, consisting of certain 
operative parts, by means of which signals from an air 
operated whistle are transmitted from trainmen to 
enginemen, on the engine, through the medium of 
signal line pressure reductions. 

150. From what source does the signal line 
receive its supply of air? 

Ans. The signal line pressure is received from 
the reducing valve used in connection with the inde- 
pendent brake valve, through a special fitting known 
as a combined check valve and strainer. This pres- 
sure like all other pressures, has its real source, or 
fountain head in the main reservoir, but when speak- 
ing of the beginning, we take it at its nearest pipe con- 
nection to the main reservoir. 

151. In what manner does the reducing valve 
govern the two pressures, signal line, and independ- 
ent brake pressure? 

Ans. The reducing valve being set for 45 
pounds allows a pressure of 45 pounds to feed to the 
combined strainer, and check valve. The independ- 
ent brake not having such a device, gets its air direct 



340 POCKET EDITION OF 

from the reducing valve. Thus the reducing valve 
answers two purposes, with the ET equipment. 

152. For what purposes are the strainer and 
check valve? 

Ans. The strainer is for the purpose of prevent- 
ing any foreign substance working back into the 
signal line system, thus destroying the action of some 
of the operative parts. The check valve is to prevent 
a back flow of air, from the signal line, to the reducing 
valve pipe. 

153. Is there any difference in the construction 
of this combined check valve, and strainer, to the one 
used with the dead engine feature? 

Ans. The two devices operate identically the 
same, the only difference in construction being thai 
the tension of the check valve spring is greater in the 
one used in connection with the signal line than the 
dead engine feature. 

154. In regards to defects in the operation of the 
signal system is there any difference between the 
signal system of the ET equipment and the system used 
in connection with other styles of brake equipment? 

Ans. The defects of one system are the same 
with all with the exceptions of a possible defect in 
the combined check valve and strainer, the rest of 
the signal system being the same so far as operative 
parts are concerned. 

155. In what part of this book is there further 
information in regards to signal line defects? 

Ans. In the third years' air brake examination. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 341 

DEFECTS, BROKEN PIPES. 

156. Are there defects in connection with broken 
pipes that can be in a measure repaired, while on the 
road? 

Ans. Yes, there are many defects in connection 
with the operation of the different parts, and pipe con- 
nections, that can be so repaired that the engine can 
complete the trip. 

157. Would it be sufficient grounds to cause an 
engine failure, by reason of the fact that certain opera 
tive features of the equipment had been destroyed due 
to broken pipes? 

Ans. There would of course be exceptional cases, 
but ordinarily the defects spoken of can be so repaired 
that the engine will be able to continue the trip, even 
though certain operative features have been destroyed. 

158. What would be the effect if the brake pipe 
branch to the distributing valve broke off? 

Ans. This would of course cause the locomotive 
and train brakes to apply, by reason of a reduction in 
brake pipe pressure. 

159. What would be done in case this should 
happen? 

Ans. The broken pipe could be plugged, towards 
the pressure. If it could not be otherwise repaired, the 
locomotive brakes could be released by placing the 
handle of the independent brake valve in release posi- 
tion. The engine would then be ready to proceed. 

160. What effect would this defect have on the 
operation of the distributing valve? 



34 2 POCKET EDITION OF 

Ans. In case the brake pipe branch to the dis- 
tributing valve were broken off, it would be impossible 
to obtain an automatic application of the engine and 
tender brakes, with the automatic brake valve, but 
this would in no way interfere with the operation of 
train brakes, with the automatic brake valve. 

161. How then could engine and tender brakes 
be applied and released? 

Ans. The engine and tender brakes could be 
applied and released with the independent brake 
valve, always using release position to release the 
brakes. 

162. What would be the results if the pipe 
connections between the distributing valve and the 
brake cylinders, broke off? 

Ans. This would first result in the loss of brake 
cylinder pressure, that would in turn cause an entire 
loss of main reservoir pressure, if the handle of either 
brake valve be left in application, or lap position. 

163. What could and should be done? 

Ans. If this should happen while running on the 
road, the main reservoir pressure can be saved by 
placing the handle of the independent brake valve in 
release position, which will allow the pressure in the 
application cylinder to be exhausted to the atmos- 
phere, thus allowing the application valve to return to 
its normal running, or release position, closing the 
application slide valve, and preventing any further loss 
of main reservoir pressure. If possible the cut-out 
cock in the cylinder pipe should be closed, or else 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 343 

plugged. If the break be close to the distributing 
valve, the cut-out cock in the supply pipe should be 
closed, in which case there will be no engine or tender 
brakes, but the train brakes can still be operated with 
the automatic brake valve. 

164. What would be the result if the supply pipe 
to the distributing valve should break off? 

Ans. There would be an entire loss of main reser- 
voir pressure, and it would be impossible to obtain a 
brake application (with either valve) on the engine, or 
tender. 

165. What should be done? 

Ans. The cut-out cock in the supply pipe should 
either be closed, or the pipe plugged to prevent a loss 
of main reservoir pressure. 

166. What would be the results if the applica- 
tion pipe to the distributing valve broke off? 

Ans. In case the application cylinder pipe 
breaks, it would be impossible to apply the locomotive 
brakes. 

167. What can and should be done in this case? 
Ans. The broken pipe should be plugged at the 

distributing valve, the locomotive brakes could then 
only be applied with the automatic brake valve. 

168. In case the brakes had been applied with 
the automatic brake valve, would it be possible to 
release them with the independent brake valve? 

Ans. No, it would only be possible to release the 
brakes by placing the handle of the automatic brake 
valve in running position. 



344 POCKET EDITION OF 

169. Why would this be impossible? 

Ans. When the handle of the automatic brake 
valve is in any other position, except running, the 
distributing valve release pipe, and port connections 
are blanked by the rotary in the automatic brake 
valve, it then being only possible to rid the application 
cylinder of its pressure (that is % holding the brakes 
applied) through the medium of the application cylin- 
der pipe, and the rotary of the independent brake 
valve, when the independent brake valve is in release 
position. This pipe being broken and plugged pre- 
vents this port and pipe connection being made. 

170. If the distributing valve release pipe, lead- 
ing to the under side of the rotary in the independent 
brake valve, should break off, what would be the effect? 

Ans. The holding feature of'the automatic brake 
valve would be lost, and it would be impossible to apply 
the brakes with the independent brake valve, in case 
the equalizing parts of the distributing valve were in 
their normal, running, or release position. The brakes 
would apply, but as soon as the handle of the inde- 
pendent brake valve was returned to lap position, the 
brakes would release. 

171. With the brakes applied by the automatic 
brake valve, could they be released with the independ- 
ent brake valve? How? 

Ans. Yes, they could be released by placing the 
handle of the independent brake valve in release posi- 
tion, in which case the application cylinder pressure 
would be allowed to escape to the atmosphere by way 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 345 

of the application cylinder pipe, the rotary in the inde- 
pendent brake valve, and the central exhaust port 
in the independent brake valve. 

172. What should be done in case this should 
happen while on the road? 

Ans. With the distributing valve release pipe 
broken ofl it is not necessary to do any plugging, 
care should be exercised, and not attempt to depend 
on the holding feature of the automatic brake valve. 
The brake valve should be handled as was good prac- 
tice with the older styles of equipment. 

173. What effect would it have on the operation 
of the air pump, if the pipe leading to the spring 
chamber (top pipe) of the excess pressure governor 
should break off? 

Ans. As soon as a pressure sufficient to seat 
the governor piston against boiler pressure was 
obtained (25 to 40 pounds) the pump would stop. 

174. Would the position of the automatic brake 
valve have any effect on this defect? 

Ans. As long as the brake valve was in full 
release, running, or holding position, the pump would 
remain idle, but as soon as the brake valve was moved 
to lap, service, or emergency the pump would resume 
operation. 

175. What can and should be done in a case of 
this kind? 

Ans. Either put in a plug, or flatten the broken 
pipe, then put in a blind gasket in the lower, or pipe 
connecting below the diaphragm. The lower pipe can 



34^ POCKET EDITION OF 

be connected to the top of the spring chamber, which 
in some cases would be the quicker and better 
method. The excess pressure head of the governor is 
then out of service, and the engine should proceed, 
depending upon the maximum pressure head. If the 
train be short, the maximum pressure head should be 
adjusted to 100 pounds, main reservoir pressure (as 
with the single governor). If in heavy freight service, 
the main reservoir pressure should be 120 pounds, 
even though it is detrimental to the pump to work 
against such a high pressure. 

176. What can and should be done if the pipe 
connecting below the diaphragm should become 
broken, what effect would it have on the operation 
of the pump? 

Ans. With this pipe broken there would be no 
pressure under the diaphragm, to raise it, and the feed 
valve pipe pressure, with the tension of the excess 
pressure spring, would hold the diaphragm down, until 
such time as the maximum pressure head took control 
of the pump. With this pipe broken it is only neces- 
sary to put in a blind gasket to prevent a waste of 
air, and proceed depending upon the maximum pres- 
sure head of the governor for pump control. 

177. In case the pipe connection to the maximum 
pressure head of the governor should break off what 
would be the effect, and what should be done? 

Ans. In case this pipe should break off, there 
would be no pressure under the diaphragm to control 
the maximum pressure head, and this governor would 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 347 

lose control of the pump, when the handle of the auto- 
matic brake valve, was in service, emergency, or lap 
positions. The low pressure head would control the 
pump in all other positions of the engineer's brake 
valve. The broken pipe should be plugged, to prevent 
a waste of air, and when the handle of the engineer's 
brake valve is moved to lap, service, or emergency 
position, the pump would have to be throttled to pre- 
vent too high a main reservoir pressure, as the pump 
having no governor control, would pump to boiler 
pressure. 

178. What can and should be done, in case the 
equalizing reservoir pipe should break off, or the 
reservoir should spring a leak? 

Ans. The pipe connection at the engineer's brake 
valve should be plugged if it be impossible to make 
repairs, and service applications, of the brakes, made 
by moving the handle slowly to partial emergency 
position, being very careful when returning the valve 
to lap position, to not do so quickly, as the stoppage 
of the flow of air would cause head brakes to release. 
The equalizing discharge fitting should also be 
plugged in this case (brake pipe exhaust elbow). 

179. In case the brake pipe should break under 
the tender, is there any way by which the train can be 
gotten to the terminal, with all brakes in operation? 

Ans. Yes, plug the broken brake pipe, then con- 
nect the brake pipe hose to the signal line hose on the 
front, or pilot of the engine, open all signal line hose 
angle cocks, and carry the brake pipe pressure to the 



34-8 POCKET EDITION OF 

rear of the train through the signal line, where the 
brake pipe hose, and signal line hose should again be 
cross coupled. The angle cock in the brake pipe 
between the tender and first car should then be 
coupled. Charge up the train, and after a terminal test 
of brakes had been made the train is ready to proceed, 
with a brake on the engine, tender, and the entire 
train. 

1 80. In this case could the air signal system be 
operated? 

Ans. No, as the signal line is acting as a pipe 
line to carry the brake pipe pressure, to the rear of 
the train. 

181. Could an emergency application of the 
brakes be obtained with the air so coupled? 

Ans. An emergency application of the brakes 
could not be obtained, as the frictional flow of the air, 
through this pipe line would be too slow to operate 
the emergency features of the quick action triple 
valves. 

182. Would it be advisable to use this method to 
get in? 

Ans. Only in cases of actual emergency, as a 
passenger train should not be operated, without the 
emergency feature of the brakes, as it is not known at 
what time an actual emergency will arise. The brakes 
otherwise could be operated according to recom- 
mended practice. 

183. What should be done in case a pipe leading 
to the air gauge should break off? 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 349 

Ans. Plug the pipe, and proceed, without that 
feature of the gauge. 

184. What would be the results if the feed valve 
became so inoperative that it could not be repaired? 
What could be done? 

Ans. The feed valve becoming . inoperative, 
would prevent carrying the proper brake pipe pres- 
sure. The reducing valve could be adjusted to the 
feed valve pressure, and substituted for the feed valve. 
ROUND HOUSE TEST OF THE ET EQUIP- 
MENT PARTS. 

185. What are the parts of the ET equipment 
that should receive a test before the engine leaves the 
house for a trip? 

Ans. The following parts should be known to be 
in good working order before the engine leaves the 
house : The automatic brake valve, independent brake 
valve, distributing valve, feed valve, reducing valve, 
combined check valve and strainer (used in connection 
with air signal system, and dead engine feature) safety 
valve, and duplex pump governor. 

186. Why should these parts be tested before 
leaving the house? 

Ans. They should be tested in order to deter- 
mine that each part of the equipment is doing the 
work for which it was intended, that all valves properly 
maintain and separate their pressures, and that all 
parts of the equipment are reasonable free from leaks 
that would seriously effect the operation of the brakes 



35° POCKET EDITION OF 

in any manner. The proper place to locate defects is 
in the round house. 

187. What should be the engineer's first duty 
before attempting to make a round house inspection 
of the different parts of the equipment? 

Ans. After the air pump has been in operation a 
certain length of time, the drain cocks on drums and' 
in pipe wells, should be closed, the angle cocks on both 
signal line and brake pipe hose should be opened, and 
blown out, to remove any collection of water, or scales 
that would otherwise work back into the system and 
cause trouble. 

188. What pressures should the air brake equip- 
ment contain before a test is attempted? 

Ans. Each part should have its standard pres- 
sure, the air gauge should be the first part tested, to 
see that it is reasonably correct. 

189. How would you test the air gauge, without 
the use of a test gauge ? 

Ans.> By placing the handle of the automatic 
brake valve in full release position, if both the red 
and black hand come well together, the gauge is said 
to be correct. If the two hands stand more than three 
pounds apart, the gauge should be repaired, or 
, changed. 

190. What parts should next be tested? 
Ans. The pump governors. 

191. How would you test the pump governor? 
Ans. The handle of the automatic brake valve 

should be placed in running position, in which position 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 351 

the excess pressure head of the pump governor should 
stop the pump when 20 pounds of excess had been 
obtained, or the red and black hands of the air gauge 
should stand 20 pounds apart when the pump stops. 

192. If the brake pipe pressuure is standard, but 
the main reservoir does not contain an excess pressure 
of 20 pounds, what, and where should an adjustment 
be made? 

Ans. The excess pressure head should be 
adjusted by removing the cap nut, and by screwing 
down on the adjusting screw, obtain the desired 20 
pounds. If the gauge shows a greater excess pressure 
than 20 pounds, the tension on the excess pressure 
spring should be relieved until the pump stops at the 
desired pressure. 

193. How can the maximum pressure head be 
adjusted? 

Ans. By placing the handle of the automatic 
brake valve on lap, then either increase or decrease 
the tension on the regulating spring, until the red 
hand of the air gauge (Duplex gauge) shows the 
desired main reservoir pressure. 

194. After satisfying yourself that the air gauge, 
pump governor, and pump are doing their work as is 
desired what should then be tested? 

Ans. The automatic brake valve should then be 
tested. 



35 2 POCKET EDITION OF 

TESTS FOR DEFECTS IN THE AUTOMATIC 
BRAKE VALVE. 

195. Of what should the first test in connection 
with the automatic brake valve consist? 

Ans. The engineer should examine with a 
lighted torch all pipe connections to and from the 
automatic brake valve, to ascertain that there are no 
leaks. He should then satisfy himself that the rotary 
valve handles easily in the automatic brake valve. 

196. If the rotary handles hard, what might be 
the cause, and what should be done? 

Ans. The rotary valve might be cut or dry, the 
handle key gasket dry, or the handle latch dry. The 
cut-out cock in the brake pipe underneath the brake 
valve, and the main reservoir cut-out cock should be 
closed, the plug from the body casting of the 
engineer's brake valve removed, and a sufficient 
amount of clean valve oil introduced to properly 
lubricate these parts. The rotary valve should then 
be moved so as to allow the oil to work down on the 
rotary seat, and the plug returned. Put a small 
quantity of oil on the handle latch to lubricate it, and 
a small amount down by the rotary stem to lubricate 
the handle key gasket. 

197. If after a reduction in chamber D has been 
made, the equalizing discharge valve continues to dis- 
charge air, what might be the probable cause, and 
what should be done to stop it? 

Ans. If the equalizing discharge valve continues 
to discharge air with the automatic brake valve on 
lap, it may be due to some foreign substance on the 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 353 

face of the valve, or its seat, or possibly a leak in 
chamber D, or the equalizing reservoir or its pipe con- 
nections. By closing the cut-out cock in the brake 
pipe underneath the engineer's brake valve, and 
making a heavy service reduction, the obstruction can 
usually be removed. Leaks must be located, and 
repaired. 

198. How long should it take to reduce chamber 
D 20 pounds, in service application? 

Ans. It should take from 5 to 7 seconds. 

199. In case the reduction from chamber D is 
faster than this, what might be probable cause? 

Ans. It may be due to too large a preliminary 
exhaust port, a leak by the rotary in the brake valve, 
or a leak in the equalizing reservoir or its pipe connec- 
tions. 

200. If the reduction is too slow what might be 
the probable cause? 

Ans. The reduction being slow might be caused 
by too small preliminary port, or a leak into the 
equalizing reservoir (or chamber D). 

201. How should a test for a leaky rotary be 
made? 

Ans. The pressure in chamber D should all be 
reduced, by allowing the handle of the automatic 
brake valve to remain in service application position, 
the cut-out cock underneath the engineer's brake valve 
should then be closed. If a blow starts at the equal- 
izing discharge fitting (brake pipe exhaust) it in- 
dicates a leak into the brake pipe due to leaky rotary. 
If the black hand of the air gauge moves up, noticibly, 



354 POCKET EDITION OF 

it indicates that pressure is leaking into chamber D, 
either by a leaky rotary, or by a leak in the body 
gasket. 

202. What does an increase in brake cylinder 
pressure, and a blow from the safety valve indicate 
while the automatic brake valve is in lap position? 

Ans. It indicates that there is a leak from a 
leaky rotary valve into the application cylinder, of the 
distributing valve. 

203. If the brake releases with the handle of the 
automatic brake valve on lap position, what does it 
indicate? 

Ans. It indicates that there is either a broken 
distributing valve release pipe, a leak in the U pipe 
connection, a leak in the application cylinder, or the 
adjustment on the safety valve is too low, or a broken 
regulating spring or the return spring in the handle 
of the independent brake valve (broken), and the 
handle in release position, or a broken application 
cylinder pipe. 

204. If the brakes would not apply either with 
the automatic, or independent brake valve, what might 
be the trouble? 

Ans. In this case, there might be a stoppage in 
the cylinder pipes, the cut-out cock in the pipe might 
be closed, the supply pipe leading to the distributing 
valve may either be stopped up, or the cut-out cock 
closed, the supply port in the seat of the application 
slide valve stopped up, or possibly the cylinder pipe 
might be leaking bad or the pipe might be broken off" 
entirely, which action could be told by the perform- 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 355 

ance of the pump. The application cylinder might be 
leaking bad, causing an entire loss of pressure behind 
the application piston, the safety valve spring might- 
be broken, the equalizing slide valve may be leaking 
the pressure away, the pressure chamber may not be 
charged due to a dirty feed groove in the equalizing 
valve bushing, or possibly there is a leak from the 
drain plug in the distributing valve reservoir. 

205. When the handle of the automatic brake 
valve is on lap position, after a service application of 
the brakes, and there is a continuous waste of air at 
the brake pipe exhaust, what does it indicate? 

Ans. It indicates a leak in chamber D, or the 
equalizing reservoir, and its pipe connections. 
TESTS FOR DEFECTS IN THE INDEPENDENT 
BRAKE VALVE. 

206. What is the most important thing to 
observe in connection with the independent brake 
valve ? 

Ans. To know that there is no leak in the 
rotary, or the valve pipes, to and from the brake valve, 
and that the valve handles reasonably easy, and that 
the return spring is not broken, and will do the work 
for which it was intended. 

207. In case the independent brake valve handles 
hard, what might be the cause, and how can the defect 
be remedied? 

Ans. The valve may be handling hard due to 
improper lubrication, or possibly the return spring or 
its housing, or the same defects that affect the opera- 



356 POCKET EDITION OF 

tion of the automatic brake valve. The independent 
brake valve should receive a sufficient amount of lubri- 
cation, in the same manner as the automatic brake 
valve. 

208. In case it was thought there was a leaky 
rotary in the independent brake valve, how could a 
test to determine, be made? 

Ans. By making a very light independent brake 
application of the brakes, and then allow the handle of 
the brake valve to remain on lap position. If the 
brake cylinder pressure increases to the limit of the 
adjustment of the safety valve spring it indicates a 
leaky rotary. If while the handle of the independent 
brake valve is in running position, there is a con- 
tinuous blow at the direct application emergency 
exhaust port, it also indicates a leak by the rotary 
valve in the independent brake valve. 

209. In case the handle of the independent brake 
valve failed to return to slow application, or running 
position, when this valve is being used, what might be 
the cause, and should the engineer take the engine out, 
without having repairs made? 

Ans. This may be caused by a broken return 
spring, or by the resistance offered to frictional parts, 
due to a very dry condition of the valve, or seat. The 
engineer should insist on repairs being made pro- 
viding it was a broken spring at fault. The spring 
being broken is liable to be the cause of the handle 
being left in release position, which would surely 
cause trouble in case the train should break in two. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 357 

DISTRIBUTING VALVE TESTS. 

210. If when the brake system is fully charged, a 
five pound reduction fails to cause the brakes to apply 
on the engine and tender, what is the probable defect? 

Ans. Dirty, sticky parts, causing excessive fric- 
tion in the operation of the operative parts. The 
frictional resistance offered by the sticky parts is so 
great that a five pound reduction is not sufficient to 
overcome the resistance offered. 

211. How could it be determined which of the 
operative parts is at fault? 

Ans. If after charging the system a slow appli- 
cation of the brakes be made with the independent 
brake valve, the brake sets promptly it indicates that 
the trouble is in the equalizing portion of the dis- 
tributing valve. If the brake is very slow in applying 
or responding to the application, it indicates that the 
trouble is in the application portion. 

2i2. In case these parts be found defective in the 
manner described, what should be done? 

Ans. The distributing valve should be dis- 
mantled, cleaned and oiled. 

213. How often should such work as cleaning 
and oiling the operative parts of distributing valve be 
done, and should it ever be done by the engineer? 

Ans. This work should be done as often as 
necessary to keep the parts in a sensitive working 
condition, and if considered necessary by the engineer, 
he should clean and oil the parts. Ordinarily the dis- 
tributing valve parts do not require cleaning and 



35§ POCKET EDITION Otf 

oiling oftener than once in each six months, this of 
course depending upon the condition of the service, 
and the manner in which the main reservoir be 
drained, as well as some points in the construction of 
the drum, and its pipe connections. 

214. In case it be found necessary to clean and 
oil parts of the distributing valve in route, how should 
the parts be removed? 

Ans. After all pressure had been drained from 
the system, the equalizing piston, slide and graduating 
valve can be removed by taking off the equalizing 
cylinder cap. Then carefully remove the parts, being 
careful not to injure them, the parts should then be 
cleaned (with kerosene) and laid to one side until 
other parts have been cleaned. In order to remove the 
application piston, application valve and exhaust valve, 
the application valve cover must first be removed, and 
the application valve and pin carefully taken out, the 
application piston and exhaust valve can then be re- 
moved. After all parts have been removed and cleaned, 
the compressor should be allowed to work, and all ports 
in the distributing valve blown out, in order to remove 
any obstruction there may be in them, the parts should 
then be well oiled, and returned to their respective 
places. While the distributing valve was dismantled, 
the feed groove in the equalizing portion should be 
cleaned out, care being taken to prevent scratching 
the bushing, in case it is being cleaned with any thing 
hard. A pointed piece of hard wood is better than a 
piece of metal for this purpose. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 359 

215. After a reduction of ten pounds had been 
made, what should the red hand of the brake cylinder 
gauge show? 

Ans. This hand should show 25 pounds pressure 
in the brake cylinder. 

216. Explain why a ten pound reduction from 70 
pounds, brake pipe pressure, results in a 25 pound 
brake cylinder pressure? 

Ans. The size of the application cylinder, and 
chamber, is such in comparison to the size of the pres- 
sure chamber, that a pound of air from the pressure 
chamber is equal to two and one-half pounds in the 
application chamber and cylinder. The brake cylinder 
pressure corresponds to the application cylinder pres- 
sure, for each pound reduction made in the brake pipe. 

217. After a partial service application of the 
brakes had been made, with the automatic brake 
valve, the cylinder pressure was noticed to be increas- 
ing, what might be the cause? 

Ans. The most probable cause is that it was due 
to brake pipe leakage, although it may be caused by a 
leaky rotary valve, in either brake valve, a leak by 
the equalizing or graduating valve in the distributing- 
valve. 

218. Why should a brake pipe pressure of 70 
pounds be used, when testing for defects in the dis- 
tributing valve? 

Ans. With a brake pipe pressure of 70 pounds, 
the point of equalization is below the adjustment of 
the safety valve, while with no pounds brake pipe 



360 POCKET EDITION OF 

pressure, the point of equalization is considerably 
above the adjustment of the safety valve, and this 
being the condition, leaks could not so easily be dis- 
covered. 

219. When it is desired to test for leaks, how 
can their source be determined? 

Ans. By making a partial service application, 
with the automatic brake valve, then by watching the 
brake cylinder air gauge. If the cylinder pressure 
reaches 50 pounds, and remains at this point, it indi- 
cates a leak in the brake pipe. 

If the cylinder pressure reaches the adjustment 
of the safety valve it indicates that there is a leaky- 
rotary valve in the automatic brake valve. (The 
safety valve will discharge air in this case.) If the 
brake cylinder pressure increases to 45 pounds, it in- 
dicates a leak by the rotary in the independent brake 
valve. In case the safety valve be removed, and there* 
be a continuous leak at the safety valve connection 
(after a partial service application) it indicates a leak 
by the equalizing, or graduating valve. If there is a 
constant leak of air from the exhaust port of the auto- 
matic brake valve, it indicates a leak in the equalizing 
slide valve. (The handles of both brake valves must 
be in running position in this case.) 

If after a service application there is an inter- 
mittent blow at the distributing valve exhaust elbow, 
it indicates an application slide valve leak, that is if 
the application cylinder, and application cylinder pipe 
be found free from leaks. If there is a continuous leak 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 361 

of air from this exhaust port, it (with the brake 
applied) indicates that the exhaust valve is leaking. 
If after a service application of the brakes have been 
made, the brakes release (the equalizing piston, slide 
and graduating valve move to release position) it 
indicates that there is a leaky graduating valve in the 
distributing valve. The brake in this case will not 
release on the engine from which they are applied, 
but will on the second engine when double heading 
(that is when the double heading cock is closed in the 
brake pipe of the second engine, and the engineer's 
brake valve carried in running position. The brakes 
do not release on the engine from which they are 
applied, due to the fact that the rotary in the auto- 
matic brake valve has the port connection in the dis- 
tributing valve release pipe blocked. The second 
engine can get the hold feature of the brake applica- 
tion by also lapping his brake valve (automatic brake 
valve). If the brakes release, when the handle of the 
automatic brake valve be placed in either full release 
or holding position, it indicates a leak in the distribu- 
ting valve release pipe between the two brake valves. 
The brakes will not release with this defect, if the 
brake be applied with the independent brake valve. 

If the brakes release after either an automatic or 
independent brake application, it indicates a leak from 
the application cylinder, cylinder gasket, or pipe con- 
nection. In order to determine whether the dis- 
tributing valve release pipe is leaking, make a service 
application of the brakes. If the brakes remain applied 



362 POCKET EDITION OF 

with the handle of the brake valve on lap position 
(automatic brake) the distributing valve release pipe 
is not leaking, but if when the brake valve is returned 
to holding position, the brakes release it is then an 
indication of a distributing valve release pipe. In 
order to determine whether the application cylinder 
application cylinder cap gasket, or pipe connection is 
leaking, make a service reduction of at least 15 pounds, 
lap the brake valve, if the brake releases it indicates 
a leak from some of these sources. 

If the brake cylinder fails to remain at the point 
at which it was applied, it indicates a leak from the 
application cylinder, cylinder gasket, or the applica- 
tion cylinder pipe connections. The amount of leak- 
age from the brake cylinder can readily be determined 
by noting the number of strokes the compressor makes 
in a given length of time. Apply the brake with the 
independent brake valve, and then note the number of 
strokes the pump makes. The difference in the num- 
ber of strokes mdae by the pump, indicates the brake 
cylinder leakage. Another way in which to determine 
brake cylinder leakage is to apply the brake, and 
close the cut-out cock in the cylinder pipe. The red 
hand of the brake cylinder gauge will show the rate at 
which the cylinder is leaking the pressure away. In 
order to determine which of the cylinders (engine or 
tender) close the cut-out cock in the cylinder pipe, 
and note in which case the pump works the harde , 
this will indicate which of the cylinders is leaking., 
Testing with a lighted torch will indicate the leak, 



Locomotive engineering 363 

but the above method is given in cases where cylinders 
are so located, that it is hard to get to them in order 
to make the test. 

220. In what manner can the amount of signal 
line pressure be told? 

Ans. The signal line pressure should correspond 
to the reducing valve pressure but in case the reducing 
valve becomes inoperative, and the signal line becomes 
over charged, the amount of pressure can either be told 
with a test gauge, or by charging up the signal system, 
stop the pump, and then drain the main reservoir, the 
red hand of the air gauge will tell the amount of signal 
line pressure when the whistle sounds. 

221. What harm would an overcharged signal 
line do? 

Ans. The signal line being overcharged, might 
be the cause of burst signal line hose, and when the 
independent brake was applied, or the automatic 
brakes released, the signal whistle would blow, thus 
destroying the purpose for which the signal was 
intended. 

222. What else will cause the whistle to blow 
when the car discharge valve has not been opened? 

Ans. A leak in the signal line from any cause, 
or a back leakage from the combined check valve and 
strainer. 

223. What defects will interfere with the correct 
operation of the signal whistle? 

Ans. The same defects that are common to the 
standard equipment, as used with the ordinary brake 



364 POCKET EDITION OF 

equipment, are found in the equipment used in con- 
nection with the ET equipment. 

224. What is the only difference in the signal 
system used with the ET equipment? 

Ans. The only difference lies in the signal line 
reducing valve. 

225. In case it becomes necessary to cut out the 
signal system, how can it be done? 

Ans. By closing the cut-out cock in the com- 
bined check valve and strainer pipe connection. 

226. If the signal line charged too slow- where 
would you look for the trouble? 

Ans. In the signal line reducing valve, or the 
combined check valve, and strainer. 

227. With the signal system fully charged, the 
signal whistle continues to blow after a signal line 
reduction, what might be the cause? 

Ans. Leaks in the signal system, or a sluggish 
working reducing valve. 

TRAIN HANDLING. 

Brake manipulation, like any other thing about the 
engine and train, requires good judgment. The 
engineer who is lacking in this qualification never 
makes a success of the business he is trying to follow. 
An education on the working principle of a device 
may help a man in the successful handling of it but no 
book will ever be able to impart to a man the greatest 
acquirement in modern railway practice, good judg- 
ment. 

228. When the engine is hauling the train, what 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 365 

position should the engineer's brake valve be in? (In- 
dependent and automatic.) 

Ans. Both brake valves should be carried in run- 
ning position. 

229. In what position should the automatic brake 
valve be while charging a train? 

Ans. The automatic brake valve should be in 
release position while charging a train before a test 
of brakes is made. 

230. Why is this? 

Ans. This position should be used as there is a 
more direct opening between the main reservoir and 
the brake pipe, and the air that is being compressed 
by the pump is being delivered direct to the brake 
pipe, thereby making a much more free working 
pump. 

231. How long should the brake valve be allowed 
to remain in this position? 

Ans. Until such time as the black hand of the 
duplex air gauge registers 70 pounds, or whatever 
pressure it is desired to carry. (The feed valve being 
taken into consideration.) 

232. When fully charged, how should a test be 
made? 

Ans. A full service application of the brakes 
should be made. (The amount of brake pipe pres- 
sure being taken into consideration.) 

233. Of any given pressure, how much of it 
should be reduced to get all power obtainable in a 
service application? 



3t>6 POCKET EDITION OF 

Ans. All things being standard, a 2-7 reduction 
of a given pressure will produce equalization, and 
this is all the power obtainable in a service application. 

234. Why should the engineer insist on a test 
of brakes before leaving the terminal? 

Ans. Without this knowledge, he would be 
unable to successfully attempt to handle the train over 
the road, he would not know the condition of the 
brakes in regards to piston travel, or leaks that effect 
the operation of the same, or would it be possible to 
locate defective triple valves, that in some cases effect 
the operation of the train brakes as a whole. (Un- 
desired emergency.) 

235. In case after a test of brakes had been made, 
while running along the road the brakes should apply 
in emergency application without the action of the 
engineer, what should be done, and why? 

Ans. The engineer should move the automatic 
brake valve to emergency position, and leave it there 
until the train is brought to a stop. This is done to 
insure the locomotive brakes remaining applied, and to 
prevent a loss of main reservoir pressure. 

236. In case a stop has been made, how should 
the brake valve be handled to release all brakes? 

Ans. The brake valve should be placed in full 
release position (it being understood that a proper 
reduction has been made, and the main reservoir con- 
tains a sufficient amount of excess pressure) and left 
there a sufficient length of time (different roads have 
different rules in this regard) to release all brakes. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 367 

On trains of any considerable length a second release, 
or kick off, should be used. This is done to get the 
equalizing valve off service lap position, and to release 
brakes on the train that may have re-applied due tc 
the resultant overcharge on the head end of the train. 

237. In case the driver brakes should cause the 
wheels to slide, during a stop, how can they be 
released? 

Ans. By moving the independent brake valve to 
release position, making a direct opening between the 
application cylinder and the atmosphere, through the 
application cylinder pipe, and the rotary of the inde- 
pendent brake valve. 

238. After releasing train brakes, why is it neces- 
sary to move the handle of the automatic brake valve 
to running position to release the locomotive brake? 

Ans. Due to the construction of the rotary, and 
the port and pipe connection of the combined rotary 
and distributing valve, this is the only position in 
which there is an opening between the distributing- 
valve, and the atmosphere. 

239. Should the independent brake valve be used 
in completing a stop? 

Ans. Yes on trains of all loads or empties, it 
should be used as follows : On a train of all empties, 
build up the engine brake cylinder pressure, with the 
independent brake valve. On a train of all loads 
reduce the engine brake cylinder pressure with the 
independent brake valve. 



368 • POCKET EDITION OF 

240. Should the independent brake be used 
before the automatic? 

Ans. No, as by bunching slack with this valve, 
great damage to laden, and draught rigging is some- 
times done. 

241. What is the greatest advantage in connec- 
tion with the use of the ET equipment? 

Ans. The ability to release engine, and train 
brakes alternately, or both at a time, if conditions 
will so permit. 

242. Why is some set standard not attempted 
(Brake Manipulation) in this volume? 

Ans. All roads have air brake instructors, whose 
recommended practices sometimes differ with ours, 
and others' ideas of brake manipulation, hence it is 
hoped that whatever information it is possible for us 
to impart to you, will be of use in a better under- 
standing of the instructions, which your air brake 
instructor may give. 

LOCOMOTIVE BREAKDOWNS. 

Perhaps the most vital question, in the operation 
of railroads of the present day is (so far as the motive 
power is concerned), how to prevent, or reduce to a 
minimum the number of locomotive breakdowns. In 
the construction of the present day locomotive many 
of the mechanical weaknesses of the earlier locomo- 
tive have been entirely eliminated. Motive power 
men have improved the locomotive in parts, until 
many of the weak points in construction of the earlier 
types of locomotive have become only a remembrance 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 369 

of the early days of the now great railroads of the 
country. The Walschaert valve gear has taken the 
place of the old clumsy eccentrics, the piston valve, 
and many other styles of an almost perfectly 
balanced valve have replaced the slide valve. Engine 
frames are built more strongly year after year, points 
in construction mechanically show their improvements 
each year. The injector has entirely replaced the 
pump as a boiler feed. Front end, or smoke box 
arrangement has become a science until at present a 
poor steaming engine is almost a thing of the past. 

Still so long as man is not infallable, the works 
of man will likewise not be perfect. Mechanical weak- 
nesses may in a great measure be overcome but break- 
downs will be sure to happen. The one thing that 
most strongly appeals to the operating departments ol 
railroads is to educate the man in charge of the engine 
until he is able to cope with any and all breakdowns 
that may happen. Good judgment is a great factor in 
the successful handling of the engine from any stand 
point. Experience is a wonderful teacher, and no 
education is complete without it, yet in the science 
it applies in the making of a locomotive engineer, has 
in many cases proven to be a very expensive acquire- 
ment. Book knowledge has never made a thoroughly 
practical engineer. But the education gained from 
books has been of great assistance in enabling the 
engineer to successfully handle the engine from all 
standpoints. Thorough inspection of the engine parts 
and an intelligent work report will in a great measure 



37° POCKET EDITION" OF 

help to prevent a large percentage of breakdowns. The 
old adage (an ounce of preventive is worth a pound 
of cure) applies most strongly in the operation of the 
locomotive. So as long as the earnings of a railroad 
depend almost entirely on the ability of the engine to 
handle a train, will this question be one of importance 
and prominence, in the minds of motive power men. 

Trains are heavy, time is fast, and a breakdown 
means a delay which is at times unavoidable, but 
might, and can in many cases be avoided by a more 
careful system of engine inspection. Let us then in the 
discharge of our duties, have it said of us (rather than 
say, I did all I could do). He did all there was to do 
to prevent an engine failure or breakdown. To the 
man who has done this, he alone is worthy of the 
name of a successful engineer. 

MECHANICAL. 

i. What is heat? 

Ans. Heat is one form of energy, and by stu- 
dents of chemistry is said to depend upon the molecu- 
lar motion of the particles within a body. Since 
it is energy, it is capable of doing work. The energy 
confined may be able to drive a piston, it may cause 
expansion and contraction of solids, or it may change 
the cell-like formation of solids as when fused, or 
liquids when vaporized. 

Heat does not in a sense act the same as matter, 
because a heated body does not gain in weight by 
reason of the fact that it is heated, while matter, such 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 3,71 

as rubbing two pieces of ice together, the quantity 
of heat entirely disappears and is lost. 

Heat being a form of energy has many sources 
from which it is derived, because energy can be trans- 
formed, or changed into heat. Friction, or any pro- 
cess by which motion is arrested, causes a certain 
degree of heat. The two forms of energy which pro- 
duce heat are spoken of as kinetic, and potential. 

Kinetic energy is illustrated by moving currents 
of air, or by ocean currents, while potential energy is 
stored in coal, or water, and requires a certain degree 
of heat to produce a working energy. Carbon being a 
quality of coal, when burned gives off 14,500 heat 
units. Hydrogen when burned gives off 62,000 heat 
units, the combination of carbon and hydrogen forms 
the basis for all commercial fuels, such as oil, gas or 
coal. The general form in which heat is produced, is 
by some form of combustion. 

2. What is combustion? 

Ans. Combustion is a chemical combination of 
any burnable substance (fuel), with oxygen. (One 
of the universal gases.) 

3. What is meant by a degree of heat? 

Ans. The amount of heat contained in a body. 
By degree is meant a unit of measure. 

4. What is meant by a unit of heat? 

Ans. The unit of heat is defined as meaning the 
amount of heat necessary to raise one pound of water 
one degree, and is called a British thermal unit. 



372 POCKET EDITION OF 

5. What kind of an instrument is used in rneas-^ 
uring heat? 

Ans. The thermometer, for ordinary tempera- 
tures, and the pyrometer for high temperatures. 

6. What is meant by latent heat of fusion? 
Ans. During the time a piece of metal is melting, 

or a liquid is freezing no change in temperature takes 
place, by adding to or subtracting from the body heat. 
Consequently as it follows that there is a certain 
degree of heat stored in the body (potential energy) 
it is called the latent heat of fusion. 

7. What is meant by vaporization? 

Ans. Vaporization is the process of converting 
(changiing), a liquid into a vapor. 

8. What causes or brings about vaporization? 
Ans. The act of introducing heat, or boiling 

(changing a liquid into a vapor. 

9. What is meant by boiling? 

Ans. By boiling is meant the act of separating 
vapors, or gases, from fluids by the action of heat. 

10. Upon what does the degree of heat neces- 
sary to boil fluids depend? 

Ans. The degree of heat necessary to boil a 
fluid depends upon the pressure, on the fluid at the 
time it is being boiled. That is if the pressure be 
increased, the boiling point is raised, while if the pres- 
sure be decreased the boiling point is lowered. 

11. What is meant by mechanical energy, and 
heat? 

Ans. Heat may be made to perform work. The 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 373 

principle of producing these results is quite simple 
The steam when admitted to the cylinder of an engine 
carries with it the heat energy of the fuel, and by 
reason of the construction of the cylinder of the 
engine is able to expand, and do a work equal to the 
degrees of heat that it contains. By experiments it is 
found that one British thermal unit has a capacity 
for work equal to 778 foot pounds. A pound of coal 
is said to give out 14,000 heat units, which when multi- 
plied by 778, in case all the heat could be utilized, 
would give an equivalent equal to 10,892,000 foot 
pounds of work. 

12. What is meant by generating steam? 

Ans. By generating steam is meant the act of 
raising the temperature of water to such a point that 
the chemical composition of the water is separated, 
or caused to be separated by the action of heat. 

13. What is the chemical composition of water? 

Ans. Water is said to contain two parts of hydro- 
gen and one part oxygen, and may exist in any one of 
three different states, ice, water, or steam. 

14. What is the boiling or separating point of 
water when in its true state? 

Ans. When water is in a liquid state, under 
atmospheric pressure, it will boil at 212 degrees Fahn. 



374 POCKET EDITION OF 



TEMPERATURE OF STEAM AT 


VARIOUS 


PRESSURES. 




Gauge 


Temper 


Heat of 


Pressure 


Degree 


Vapor- 


lbs. per 


Fahren- 


ization. 


sq. in. 


heit 


Heat, Units 




101.99 


1,043.0 




126.27 


1,026.0 




141.62 


i,oi5-3 




I53-09 


1,007.2 




162.34 


1,000.8 




170.14 


995-2 




176.90 


990.5 




182 . 92 


986.2 




188.33 


982.5 




I93-25 


979.0 





212.00 


965-7 


0-3 


213.03 


965.1 


5 


227.95 


954-0' 


10 


240 . 04 


946.0 


15 


250.27 


938.9 


20 


259- 19 


932.6 


25 


267.13 


927.0 


30 


274.29 


922.0 


35 


280.85 


917.4 


40 


286.89 


913. T 


45 


292.51 


909.3 


5o 


297 -77 


905-5 


55 


302.71 


902.1 


60 


307-38 


898.8 


65 


311.80 


895.6 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



375 



Gauge 


Temper. 


Heat of 


Pressure 


Degree 


Vapor- 


lbs. per. 


Fahren- 


ization. 


sq. in. 


heit 


Heat, Units 


70 


316.02 


892.5 


75 


320 


04 


889.6 


80 


323 


89 


886.7 


85 


327 


58 


884.0 


90 


33i 


13 


881.3 


95 


334 


56 


878.8 


100 


337 


86 


876.3 


105 


34i 


05 


874.0 


no 


344 


13 


871.7 


115 


347 


12 


869.4 


125 


352 


85 


865.1 


135 


358 


26 


861.2 


H5 


363 


40 


857-4 


155 


368 


29 


853.8 


165 


372 


97 


850.3 


175 


377 


44 


847.0 


185 


381 


73 


843.8 


210 


39i 


79 


836.3 


235 


400 


99 


829.5 


260 


409 


50 


823.2 


285 


4i7 


42 


817.4 


310 


424 


82 


811. 9 


335 


43i 


90 


806.8 


360 


438 


40 


801.5 


385 


445 


15 


796.3 


485 


466 


57 


779-9 



37^ POCKET EDITION OF 

These figures are taken from steam in its satu- 
rated state. 

15. What is saturated steam? 

Ans. Saturated steam is steam containing parti- 
cles of water. It may be either wet or dry, depending 
upon the particles of water suspended in it. Its 
temperature is due to the pressure under which it is 
generated. Saturated steam is always given off from 
boiling water, and so remains in a greater or lesser 
degree unless superheated. 

16. What is superheated steam? 

Ans. Superheated steam is steam containing a 
greater degree of temperature than saturated steam 
does at the same pressure. Superheated steam is pro- 
duced by increasing the temperature of the steam, 
over that temperature at which it was generated, and 
must be done at some point away from the place at 
which it js generated into saturated steam. 

17. What are the advantages of superheated 
steam over saturated steam? 

Ans. The greatest factor in the use of super- 
heated steam over saturated is that there is less loss 
due to radiation or condensation. Superheated steam 
containing a greater degree of heat is consequently 
able to perform more work in the cylinders of an 
engine, less the amount lost due to condensation, it 
still arrives at the cylinders, dry,' and has a capacity 
for work greater than saturated steam would under 
the same pressure. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 377 

18. Are there any disadvantages in connection 
with its use? 

Ans. There are disadvantages, such as being hard 
to lubricate, due to excessive heat, and by some au- 
thorities, the extra expense in connection with its 
manufacture, seems to offset any economical results 
obtained from its use. 

19. What is the method used in superheating 
steam in locomotives? 

Ans. The steam is superheated by some system 
of return flues, the steam being admitted to these 
pipes and exposed to the firebox gases before reach- 
ing the cylinders of the engine. The boiler contains 
the saturated steam and (when the engine throttle 
valve is open) the superheater pipes contain the super- 
heated steam. 

COAL. 

The best authorities on the origin of coal claim 
that in pre-historic time, long before the history ol 
man, the earth was supplied with dense vegetation. 
Due to the action of water this vegetation was col- 
lected, and buried in veins and banks. By reason of 
air being excluded from these deposits of vegetation, 
they underwent a change during the ages, until the 
earth now yields to man for his use a substance called 
coal. Although the earth has been giving this product 
to man for his use for many years, soundings and 
borings show us that the earth is still supplied with 
enough of this substance to last for several genera- 
tions. 



378 POCKET EDITION OF 

20. What is the composition of bituminous coal? 
Ans. The composition of bituminous coal is 

Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon, Sulphur and 
Ash. 

CRUDE OIL. 
Liquid Fuel. 
The scientists claim, after years of investigation, 
that petroleum found in the rocks below the surface 
of the earth is not a mineral product. Rock oil, as it 
is sometimes called, is probably the results of the 
decomposition of vegetable remains. Oil is found in 
abundant quantities, in different parts of the earth, 
and is now being used as fuel, in many of the branches 
of commerce. Oil, unlike coal, has no structural for- 
mation, but when subjected to process of distillation, 
any vegetable substance, organic matter, coal, wood, 
and- etc., yields a fluid of an oily nature. Hence it is 
more than probable that the oil deposits of this earth 
come from or have their origin in the early vegeta- 
tion, of which the earth was supposed to flourish before 
the time of man. 

21. Are there any advantages in the use of oil as 
a fuel in modern railroad practice? 

Ans. By some it is claimed that by using oil fuel 
economy is effected, in that there is considerable 
saving per ton, over coal. While again the cost of 
transportation of oil from one section of the country, 
to another, would offset any economy, in its use. Then 
again if all railroads were to use oil as a fuel, the 
earth's supply would soon be exhausted? 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 379 

22. What is the difference between pounds of 
coal as per pounds of oil? 

Ans. It is claimed that a pound of oil will go as 
far, as or is equal to, one and one-half pounds of coal. 

23. Does the use of oil effect the firebox of an 
engine? 

Ans. It is claimed by some that oil is much more 
severe than coal, when used as fuel in the firebox of 
an engine. 

24. What are some of the advantages, other than 
those mentioned in the use of oil as a fuel? 

Ans. The use of the entire heating surface of the 
firebox, due to a clean condition of the flues, even 
expansion and contraction, by reason of an even 
temperature, in the box, no dirty fires to be contended 
with on long runs, less cost in connection with the 
handling of fuel at terminals, no cleaning, or dumping 
of a fire at the terminal, engine is much easier and 
more quickly dispatched, which on large roads of 
today is an important item, less liable to cause fires 
along the right ofway due to cinders being emitted 
from the stack, oil over coal as a fuel takes up less 
space on the tender, thereby increasing the water 
capacity of the tender, a very important item on fast 
passenger runs or heavy freight traffic, less labor on 
the fireman, thereby enabling him to be of more 
service to his company and the engineer by a closer 
watch on his side of the engine. 

THE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. 

The locomotive boiler is one of the parts of an 



380 POCKET EDITION OF 

engine, the study of which is very often neglected. 
Regardless of the nicety of valve motion, the pre- 
cision of mechanical construction, the power which 
the locomotive is capable of developing depends upon 
the steam generating capacity of the boiler. Let every 
other thing about the locomotive be perfect, and the 
boiler" be incapable of generating sufficient steam, no 
engineer would care to spend his time and effort on 
such an imperfect machine. Motive power men hav- 
ing taken this into consideration, have designed 
boilers so that there is but littLe doubt left as to their 
capacity in this regard. The question often arises 
that the boiler is at present too large for the work it is 
called upon to perform, the expansion and contraction 
in these large boilers being of vital importance in their 
satisfactory performance. While many things con 
cerning boiler construction are really of no relative 
value to the man rifnning the engine (such as .tensile 
strength of metals, or the pitch of a rivet), yet there 
are many things which the engineer should have a 
full understanding of, in order that he can safely 
cope with conditions as they arise. Boiler designing 
is in itself a science that of course the engineer would 
not be expected to go into details over, yet after a 
boiler is turned out a perfect piece of work, the 
engineer in order to safely handle it should know if or 
not there are any perculiar points in its construction, 
which would require his careful consideration. A 
boiler, like a chain, is no stronger than the weakest 
link, and with the greatest of care, in selecting 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 381 

material, and with the most expert labor, in its con- 
struction, faulty material, and unworkman-like labor 
will pass the eye of the inspector, so it behoves the 
engineer to treat the boiler in his care with the 
utmost consideration, familiarize himself with the 
things that tend to decrease the life and strength of 
the parts, and at all times be observant of anything 
that would tend to cause a rupture in any of the 
parts, possibly causing a loss of life to himself as 
well as others, and in many cases a great loss to the 
company. 

25. What are the requirements in the construc- 
tion of a boiler? 

Ans. One of the first things taken into con- 
sideration is that it be amply strong in all parts to 
withstand the strain and stresses to which it is sub- 
jected. Another is that the steam generating capacity 
is sufficiently large for the cylinders it is to supply. 
Another thing taken into consideration is that it be so 
designed and built, that it will be easy to repair, in 
case it becomes necessary to make such repairs. 
Another is to so construct, with the element of safety 
taken into consideration, that the greatest amount of 
work can be expected, with the least expenditure 
of fuel, as well as make it possible to keep the boiler 
clean, free from scales and sediment. 

26. What are the principal parts of a boiler? 
Ans. The principal parts are the firebox, flues, 

barrel, or cylindrical portion, mud ring and smoke 
box. There are of course such boiler fittings . as 



382 POCKET EDITION OF 

throttle valve, dry pipe, and steam pipes taken into 
consideration, yet the boiler could be spoken of as 
properly designed, without these things being taken 
into consideration. The firebox being the point at 
which the combustion of fuel gives to the water its 
degree of heat and consequently is the medium 
through which the energy of heat is transferred, will 
iirst be taken up. 

27. Describe the firebox. 

Ans. The locomotive firebox being the point at 
which aside from stresses and strains, the greatest 
degree of temperature is exerted, must naturally be 
made of the very best material. According to speci- 
fications, but usually firebox steel is desired to with- 
stand a pressure per square inch of 57,000 pounds. 

The chemical composition of this steel is usually 
as follows: Carbon 0.15 per cent, of 1 per cent. Phos- 
phorus and sulphur about 0.04 of one per cent., and 
manganese varying from 0.3 to 0.5 per cent. Anothei 
feature in connection with firebox steel is that with 
a special piece from any part of the firebox it be 
possible to bend it double, either hot or cold, without 
it showing any signs of cracking after being heated to 
a cherry red, and then cooled in water between 80 or 
90 degrees Fahn. 

Fire boxes are built in several different shapes 
and styles, but regardless of either, they are usually 
rectangular in shape, consisting of side, flue and a 
crown sheet. The crown sheet being the roof, the 
side sheets, the sides, the flue sheet, the front and the 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 383 

back or door sheet the back. The crown sheet is sup- 
ported in several different ways, but the side and back 
sheets are always supported by stay bolts. The side 
sheets are in later day boiler design most always 
corrugated, while crown sheets are made of the flat 
metal, generally so constructed as to form an arch in 
the roof of the box. The flues are of steel, seamless 
and lap welded, so that there is scarcely ever any 
danger in connection with a burst flue. 

The boiler shell is by far the easiest part of the 
boiler to construct, all^ owing a suitable factor for 
safety, the material and workmanship is then all that 
is taken into consideration. The firebox being the 
point at which the greatest strain and heat is exerted, 
naturally requires the greatest attention in design and 
workmanship. The pressure of steam is said to be 
practically equal on all parts of the inside surface of 
the boiler, and the outside of the tubes, or flues, so it 
is not necessary to have any further provision in 
staying the shell or barrel of the boiler. The strength 
of boiler plat is supposed to be about 60,000 pounds 
to the square inch and the bursting strain after the 
boiler is completed is said to be 90,000 pounds to the 
square inch. Stay bolts are used to hold the sheets 
together, and they are supposed to resist a pressure 
of about 14,000 pounds per bolt. There are many 
kinds of stay bolts, such as the straight round bolt, 
and the flexible type. All bolts are subjected to a very 
uneven expansion and contraction, hence are quite 
liable to break. The flexible type are so mechanically 



384 POCKET EDITION OF 

constructed, as to avoid this to a certain extents The 
straight bolt is provided with a tell tale hole that 
allows steam and water to escape in case the bolt 
does become broken. The flexible bolt is so con- 
structed that the uneven expansion and contraction is 
accommodated by a ball joint working in a socket. 
This in certain localities has done away with stay 
bolt breakage in a great measure, while in others the 
limy ingredients in the water soon render the bolt 
useless so far as the ball joint feature is concerned. 
So, so far as safety is concerned, the ordinary bolt is 
considered of as great strength and of an equal factor 
in safety to any of the so-called flexible type. 

Breakage of stay bolts is generally brought about 
by the action of the expansion and contraction in the 
side sheet metal, low water, and hot crown sheets. 
When any great number becomes broken in one par- 
ticular part of the boiler it becomes so weakened that 
an explosion generally occurs. The fact these bolts 
break is of constant re-occuring trouble to the boiler 
inspector and the length of time necessary to renew, 
as well as the length of time the engine is out of 
service is an item of great expense to a railroad com- 
pany. 

CROWN SHEETS. 

The crown sheet is the roof of the firebox, and is 
the point of greatest danger in the operation of the 
steam boiler. The crown sheet being the highest 
point is most liable to become dry, and if subjected 
to any great degree of heat will become burned. The 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 385 

crown sheet is supported in several different ways, 
some of the systems are crown bars, radial stays, and 
the Belpaire. 

28. What is the most common manner of stay- 
ing the crown sheet? 

Ans. The most common method of supporting 
the crown sheets is with crown bars. These bars are 
practically beams placed across the sheet, and sup- 
ported or held in place with crown bolts, or crown 
stays. These bars are made with a foot that extends 
to the edge of the side sheet on either side, and are 
so placed in the firebox as to be in pairs. The crown 
bolt is then screwed through the sheet, and passed 
up through the pair of bars and held in place by a 
rivet, when the bolt is riveted over, as well as drawn 
tight by the threads, the crown bars support the 
weight of steam on the crown sheet. In order to 
increase the holding power of the crown sheet, a stay 
known as the sling stay is used, this stay fastens to 
the crown bar and then to the shell of the boiler. By 
so doing the crown sheet is very strongly supported, 
and very little if any trouble ever was caused by the 
crown bars giving out, thus causing a boiler explo- 
sion. In a boiler that is designed to carry low pres- 
sure, and working in reasonable good water districts, 
there is still a doubt in the minds of boiler designers, 
if there is any better method to be used. 

29. What were the disadvantages in the use oi 
the crown bars? 

Ans. The greatest disadvantage in the use of 



386' POCKET EDITION OF 

crown bars is that in bad water districts the bars 
become coated with lime, and in case the' sheets and 
bars were not rid of it in a reasonable time there 
was great danger of mud burning the parts. Another 
feature was that the crown sheet so supported was 
very hard to wash, as well as expensive in case it 
became necessary to renew any of the parts. On the 
large power, the crown bars are not considered strong 
enough to support the great weight, without the use 
of a great number of sling stays. When this is done 
the outer shell of the boiler is sometimes very much 
weakened. 

RADIAL STAYS. 
The most general method in modern boiler con- 
struction is to stay the crown sheet with a bolt 
screwed through the crown sheet and through the 
shell of the boiler. The bolt is riveted over on either 
end, and is called a radial stay. 

30. What if any are the advantages of the radial 
stay over the crown bars? 

Ans. The radial stays are much easier to renew, 
as well as to keep clean, the water has a better circu- 
lation and the factor of safety is greatly increased in 
large power. 

31. In regards to the factor of safety, is there 
any advantage? " 

Ans. The radial stayed crown sheet is con- 
sidered in many cases the stronger, due to the fact 
that the scale, and incrustating matter is less liable 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 387 

to collect, hence the life of the stay bolts, crown bolts, 
and the boiler sheet is increased. , 

32. Is there any provision made for protection 
to the heads of the crown bolts, exposed to the fire- 
box heat? 

Ans. When a boiler has radial stays, the center 
four or five rows are usually riveted over with button 
heads, which in a great measure increase the strength 
of the bolt. 

THE BELPAIRE METHOD. 

This method of crown sheet support is many 
instances the same as staying the side sheets, the 
bolts screw through the sheets of the firebox, and all 
parts are equally stayed. The crown sheet is flat, and 
the firebox is generally square. When properly 
designed and constructed, this method is said to be 
the best in boiler construction, from both the point 
of safety and the ease with which it is kept clean. 
The staying is positive, and all parts of the sheets 
receive nearly the same strains due to expansion and 
contraction. 

33. What takes place in the boiler and firebox 
when the fire is started? 

Ans. When a fire is started in the boiler (the 
boiler being filled with cold Avater), the inside sheets 
become very hot before the outer sheets show any 
noticeable degree of heat. This action causes the 
side, back and flue sheets to expand in an upward 
direction. This is caused by reason of the sheets all 
being riveted to the mud, or foundation ring. The 



388 POCKET EDITION OF 

tendency then of all stay bolts is to -break, but the 
elasticity of the metal used in their construction is 
called into play, and they stand the strain depending 
upon the material, and the workman-like manner in 
which they are placed in the boiler. 

After the water begins to boil the outer sheets 
gain about the same degree of temperature contained 
in the water, and so remains as long as the watei 
remains the same. The expansion and contraction of 
a boiler has much to do with its life and this condition 
can be greatly benefited by close attention on the 
part of the engine crew. 

34. What are corrugated firebox sheets? 

Ans. Corrugated firebox sheets consist of sheets 
having vertical corrugations, or a form of ridge in the 
sheet. By some authorities it is claimed that this 
style of firebox lasts from one to three years longer, 
due to the corrugations, which give the sheet in- 
creased flexibility. Another advantage lies in the 
fact that the stay bolts are fastened in the groove of 
these corrugations, and are somewhat protected from 
the intense heat of the firebox. The flexibility of the 
sheets helps in a great measure to lessen the bursting 
strain on the sheets as well as to give greater elasticity 
to the stay bolt. 

35. What is a wagon top boiler? 

Ans. A wagon top boiler is one whose firebox 
end is larger than the cylindrical portion. There are 
several types of wagon top boiler, some of which 
will be explained. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 389 

36. What is the Wooten Boiler? 

Ans. This type of- boiler was designed in the 
year 1877, and first used in that year. With it it is 
necessary to place the engine cab ahead of the firebox, 
the steam dome being placed either ahead of the cab 
or in some cases in the cab over the crown sheet. The 
Wooten firebox is very wide and shallow, this being 
deemed necessary in districts where they are most 
used, on account of the grade of coal used. When 
fine anthracite coal is used, a much wider box is 
used than when burning bituminous coal. This type 
of boiler has undergone several mechanical changes 
since its introduction, but the general features are 
the same. In its original form the top sheets were 
made to slope down over the crown sheet, giving to 
the back end of the boiler the sloping appearance 
that caused the nick name (Fan Tailed). The fact 
that only a small amount of water is carried over the 
crown sheet has both advantages, anc* also disadvan- 
tages. In some cases this point in their construction 
prevented their coming into general use, and was the 
cause of changing to a certain extent the design. 

37. What is a prairie type of boiler? 

Ans. The prairie type of boiler is also a wide 
firebox type, the firebox extending a? far as possible 
over the wheels, giving the greatest possible heating 
surface. When this form of boiler is used on engine 
with large driving wheels, the back end of the boiler 
is generally carried on a trailer. 

Another point in the construction of this type of 



390 POCKET EDITION (>K 

boiler is that the firebox is much wider at the bottom 
than at the -top, or crown sheet. This is now con- 
sidered the general form of boiler for both passenger 
and freight locomotives. 

38. What is a Vanderbilt Boiler? 

Ans. This type of boiler differs in points of con- 
struction from those already described. The firebox 
in this style of boiler is also cylindrical, there being 
no stay bolts as in the usual type of boiler. The fire 
box is suspended by the Morrison type of suspension, 
and the walls of the box consist of slight corruga- 
tions. This type of firebox has what is known as a 
combustion chamber and a brick arch. The combus- 
tion chamber retains the gases for a short period of 
time before they are allowed to pass into the flues. 
The back end of the box is brick lined, to combustion 
chamber has a man hole plate provided to remove the 
ashes that collect, and the outlet to the atmosphere 
forms a chute for dumping the ash. There are no 
stay bolts used in the construction of this type of 
boiler. 

39. What is an Atlantic type of boiler? 

Ans. This is also a wide firebox type of boiler, 
but is somewhat differently constructed to other types 
in that it contains no wagon top. The sheet of the 
boiler are straight and about the only advantage lies in 
the point of construction, it being easier to put up 
as well as the fact that the steam dome is more cen- 
trally located, which by some is considered a great 
advantage. The reason for this is that the surging 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 39T 

of the water does not collect in the dome and is less 
liable to be carried over to the valves and cylinders, 

40. What are some of the different requirements 
of all styles of boilers? 

Ans. The requirements of the boiler are that 
they generate the greatest amount of steam with the 
least expenditure of fuel. They are required to be 
sufficiently strong to stand the enormous strain 
imposed upon them. They should be kept clean, free 
from corrosion and limy deposits, have a good circu- 
lation, and be sufficiently large to supply steam to the 
cylinders of the engine (size being taken into con- 
sideration). 

41. How is the heating surface of the boiler 
calculated? 

Ans. The total grate area, plus the area in 
square inch of flue surface, gives the total heating sur- 
face. The heating surface is the internal area of the 
firebox exposed to the action of heat. The heating 
surface is found by finding the number of squares 
in grate surface, side, back and flue sheet, plus the 
square inch in the flue, multiplied by the number of 
flues. 

42. In what way does this effect the power of 
the engine? 

Ans. As the source of power is heat, naturally 
the greater the heating surface the more power can 
be generated in the cylinders of the engine. 

43. About how many pounds of coal should be 
burned per hour, per square foot of heating surface? 



392 POCKET EDITION OF 

Ans. The amount of fuel consumed per hour, 
per square foot of heating surface, depends upon the 
conditions under which the locomotive is being 
worked. As one pound of coal can and will under 
favorable conditions raise one pound of water one 
degree in temperature, the amount of water exposed 
to the surface as well as the conditions in firebox 
combustion must be taken into consideration before 
any set amount per hour could be figured upon. We 
will leave this question for those better versed in such 
studies to figure out. 

44. How is the heat of combustion found, as it 
applies in locomotive practice? 

Ans. The degrees of heat in furnace combustion 
are found by an instrument consisting of a bomb-like 
cylindrical body, in which a certain amount of water 
is exposed to the temperature to the fire for a given 
length of time, and the degrees of temperature in the 
water after careful calculations for loss are registered 
on a thermometer. This in a way registers the 
temperature of the fire and gives the heat value of 
the fuels being burned. 

45. What is a water table, used in connection 
with the locomotive boiler? 

Ans. This is a form of metal arch, taking the 
place of the common brick arch, placed in the fire- 
box in much the same manner as the brick arch and 
for the same purpose, to retain firebox gases, longer, 
and keep the temperature of the box high as well as 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 393 

offer protection to the flues when the fire door is 
opened. 

46. Describe the construction of grates used in 
connection with coal burning locomotives. 

Ans. There are many different kinds of grate 
used in connection with coal burning engines, the 
general type being known as the finger type. The 
kind of coal as well as the service the engine is in 
has much to do with the style of grate used. When 
hard coal is being burned a form of water grate is 
used; when soft coal is used many kinds of grates are 
used, such as stub, finger, and rocker grate, each 
grate being composed of a set of fingers that inter- 
lock with the other section on either side, thus form- 
ing a grate that permits of a great air space as web 
as allows the ashes of the fire to be easily shaken into 
the pan when it is so desired. 

47. Describe the different kinds of stack used 
in connection with the locomotive boiler. 

Ans. Different front arrangements call for a 
different kind of stack. The first stack was known as 
the diamond stack, and due to its construction the 
draught on the fire was created. The old diamond 
stack is now a thing of the past with the extension 
front ends. With the extension front ends there are 
several kinds of stack used such as the large straight, 
short, and a stack with a choke bore or a flare that has 
much the same effect on the gases as the choke bore 
does to the barrel of a gun. The most usual are the 
straight short stack, the *size depending upon the size 



394 POCKET EDITION OF 

of the front end and in many cases the road over 
which the engine is to be operated. On roads that 
operate through tunnels the stack sometimes is 
equipped with a hood, to cause the gases and smoke 
to trail the engine rather than strike the roof of the 
tunnel. 

48. What is meant by the exhaust nozzle? 

Ans. The exhaust nozzle is a ring-like arrange- 
ment, placed on top of the exhaust stand, to cause the 
exhaust steam to escape with a greater velocity than 
it otherwise would. , These nozzles are sometimes 
two in number in each engine, but the usual practice 
is to have but the one. Upon the size of the nozzle 
much of the draft regulation of the firebox depends, 
as the nozzle has the greatest amount of work in 
regard tcr the force draft of the boiler. It is not con- 
sidered necessary to go into detail in regard to the 
effect of a large or small nozzle on the fire. 

49. What causes the exhaust nozzle to become 
gummed up? 

Ans. This condition is brought about by the use 
of a large amount of cylinder oil, it in time collecting 
on the nozzle decreasing its size. When this condi- 
tion arises the nozzle should be bored out, thus in- 
creasing it to the proper size for the draft of the 
engine. Small nozzles cause considerably more coal 
to be burned than is necessary. 

50. What is meant by boiler fittings? 

Ans. These are the different mechanical appli- 
ances that are fastened to the boiler, in order to enable 



Locomotive exgixeerint; 39g 

the engineer to have full control of th* boiler, and the 
engines as well to which the boiler is attached. 

51. What are some of the boiler fittings or 
attachments. 

Ans. The boiler attachments consist of dry pipe, 
steam pipes, extension from end, and the different 
draft arrangements parts, the safety valve, injectors, 
check valves, blow off valves, whistle, bell, gauge 
cocks, water glass, and steam gauge to register the 
pressure per square inch inside the boiler. 

52. Could the boiler be operated without a steam 
gauge? 

Ans. Yes, depending upon the pops, there being 
always two or more. 

53. Could the boiler be operated without a water 
glass? 

Ans. Yes, by using the gauge cocks, there being 
three on all boilers, and on some more. 

54. Why is it necessary to place the throttle 
valve in the boiler? 

Ans. This is done in order to draw the steam 
from the boiler with its greatest degree of heat, thus 
giving to the cylinders of the engine all the power 
that it is possible for the boiler to generate, there 
being no loss due to condensation, as the case would 
be were the throttle valve placed on the outside of the 
boiler. 

55. What is the most important fitting used in 
connection with the locomotive boiler? 



39^ POCKET EDITION OF 

Ans. The most important fitting is considered to 
be the safety valve. 

56. Why is this the case? 

Ans. Because upon the safety valve depends the 
safe working pressure, which the boiler is designed to 
carry. The boiler might be able to carry a greater 
pressure than allowed to by the safety valve, but under 
no circumstances should this valve be so adjusted to 
carry more than the working pressure generally 
shown on the sheel of the boiler. The company has 
men whose duty it is to see that these valves are 
properly adjusted. 

57. Why is more than one safety valve used? 
Ans. This is done as an extra precaution in case 

for any reason the valve should become inoperative. 
The valves are so set that there is a difference of two 
and one-half pounds between them. 

58. Is there any other precaution made for the 
safety of the boiler other than safety valves? 

Ans. Yes, there is placed in the crown sheet 
what is known as a fusible plug consisting of com- 
position metal easily effected by heat, when not sub- 
jected to emersion in water. 

59. What is the composition of 2 fusible plug? 
Ans. The c©mposition of these plugs are brass 

body, m which is found a soft center, consisting of 
alloy of tin, lead and bismuth. In case the sheet 
becomes bare these plugs melt allowing the steam to 
escape and relieve the boiler of its pressure as well 
as put out the fire. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 397 

60. What sort of an arrangement is a gauge 
cock? 

Ans. The gauge cock is an outward opening 
valve, from the boiler, and consists of a stem screwing 
into a body that enters the sheet of the boiler. It tells, 
the water level by allowing water to escape when 
opened, and is considered the only safe manner in 
which the water level of the boiler can be told under 
all circumstances. 

61. How many gauge cocks are there on any 
boiler? 

Ans. There are always three, and in some cases 
six. 

62. What is meant by the hydraulic test used in 
connection with a steam boiler? 

Ans. This test consists of filling the boiler full of 
cold water, and then by means of a force pump, try 
to cause it to hold more water than it is capable. 
The pressure exerted by the water is what is known 
as hydraulic pressure, and a boiler is usually con- 
sidered safe when it will stand one and one-half times 
the working pressure for which it was designed. This 
test is given to all boilers, in order to detect faulty 
material or workmanship, as well as to see that an old 
boiler has not lost its strength. In some cases the 
water pressure is five times as great as it is intended 
the working pressure to be. This should not be done 
unless the factor of safety is intended to be five. 

63. After taking into consideration the factor of 
safety and the points in boiler construction, what 



39& POCKET EDITION OF 

should next be taken into consideration, in the study 
of the locomotive? 

Ans. After understanding the points in boiler 
construction, the manner in which the product of the 
boiler (steam) performs its work should then be 
taken into consideration. 

64. In what part of the locomotive is the power 
of steam made to perform a work? 

Ans. The cylinders of the locomotive, or engines, 
is the point at which we get the power of the steam, it 
being understood that without cylinders, the rods and 
levers, we find in connection with the wheel, wheel on 
the rail could not possible exert any power. 

65. When we speak of an engine what do we 
mean? 

Ans. An engine is a mechanical device by which 
the power of stored energy is made to perform a work. 

66. Of what does an engine consist? 

Ans. An engine consists of a cylinder, piston, 
valve, some form of valve control, a connecting rod 
and a connection from the storage plant, so as to sup- 
ply the cylinder when the machine is in operation. 

67. What is a locomotive? 

Ans. A locomotive consists of two separate and 
distinct machines, coupled to the same operative 
parts, namely : The driving shaft, the valve events of 
one engine being the same as the valve events of 
the other, but of course taking place at different 
times, or intervals, due to the manner in which they 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 399 

be connected to the driving shaft. The term locomo- 
tive applies due to the fact that the power of the 
engines causes locomotion, or movement of the 
machine, in which case the power of the operating 
energy is transmitted to the wheel, wheel to the rail. 
The ability then of the locomotive to haul a train 
depends upon the weight of the machine, in connec- 
tion with the power exerted in the cylinders. 

68. How many kinds of locomotives are there in 
general use? 

Ans. There are two, simple and compound. 

69. What is a simple engine? 

Ans. A simple engine is one whose operating 
energy is not expected to perform work but once, it 
then being exhausted to the atmosphere. This action 
consists of the act of admitting, allowing a work to 
be performed equal to the expansive influence of the 
confined medium of energy, the exhaust then taking 
place allowing the remaining amount of energy to 
escape to the atmosphere. This action being a simple 
step in valve study, is called simple engine valve 
events. 

70. What is a compound engine? 

Ans. A compound engine is one in which the 
operating energy is made to do work two or more 
times. This action is brought about by a double set 
of cylinders and controlling valve arrangement. The 
steam after being used in one set of cylinders is 
exhausted into another set obtaining whatever avail- 



400 POCKET EDITION OF 

able energy remains in the confined medium by which 
power is being obtained. 

71. In classifying locomotives, what things are 
taken into consideration? 

Ans. The number of wheels the engine contains 
gives a system of classification. Beginning with the 
front engine truck, and counting back, an engine is 
classed in the following manner: When the engine 
contains two wheels on the engine truck, it is spoken 
of as an engine truck. When not it is either a pony, or 
bogy truck. Thus an engine is spoken of as 4-number 
of drivers being next, 2 and trailer 1, or 4-2-1 class. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



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402 POCKET EDITION OF 

In this diagram the numbers represent the class, 
the dash, or line at an angle the pilot, and the small 
cypher the engine truck wheel or trailer, while the 
large cipher represents the drivers. 

72. What is meant by Mallet Articulated Com- 
pound locomotives? 

Ans. The word Mallet represents the name of 
the inventor, or the man who first succeeds in getting 
two small engines under the one boiler tried out on 
a small railroad in France. (Anatole Mallet.) The 
word articulated, associated with the word Mallet, 
refers to the jointed feature in the frame by which a 
maximum wheel base is obtained without the rigid 
wheel base that would accompany such an engine were 
it not for the articulated feature in the frame. The 
drivers are arranged in sets, and each set has its own 
set of cylinders. The joint in the frame allows the 
engine to take much shorter curves than it would 
otherwise be possible were there no articulated 
feature. 

73. What is meant by the term Malley Com- 
pound? 

Ans. This term applies to a double engine, com- 
pound in the use of its steam consisting of two sets 
of cylinders placed on a hinged frame, under the 
one or same boiler. 

74. Does this class of locomotive work com- 
pound at all times? 

Ans. On some types of this class of engine the 
intercepting and reducing valve works automatically 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 4°3 

while on others the engineer can at will work the 
engine either simple or compound. 

75. How does the intercepting valve operate? 
Ans. On locomotives that are equipped with the 

automatic operating intercepting valve steam from 
the boiler at reduced pressure is admitted to the low 
pressure cylinders, while steam at full boiler pressure 
is being admitted to the high pressure cylinders. This 
action only takes place for one complete revolution 
of the driving wheel, when the intercepting valve 
automatically closes the port and pipe connection 
from the boiler to the low pressure cylinders, and 
opens the connection between the high pressure cylin- 
der's exhaust, into the low pressure steam chest. The 
engine the works compound, the low pressure cylin- 
ders receiving their steam direct from the exhaust of 
the high pressure cylinders. 

76. What connection if any is there in the valve 
gear arrangements on a Malley Compound locomo- 
tive? 

Ans. Each set of cylinders has its own separate 
and distinct valve gear parts, there being no connec- 
tion between the high and low pressure engines so 
far as the valve gear parts are concerned. 

77. What style of valve and valve gear is 
generally used with this type of engine? 

Ans. The high pressure cylinders are generally 
equipped with the piston valve while the low pres- 
sure cylinders are equipped with the ordinary balanced 



404 POCKET EDITION OF 

slide valve. The valve motion of both sets of cylin- 
ders is usually of the Walschaert type. 

78. What provision is made for flexibility, in the 
steam pipe connection between the high and low pres- 
sure cylinders, on this type of locomotive? 

Ans. This pipe has what is known as a ball joint 
connection at either end. so as to give the pipe flexi- 
bility in case of uneven movement, such as over rough 
track and around curves. 

79. From whence does the exhaust from this 
style of locomotive come? 

Ans. If the locomotive be equipped with the auto- 
matic intercepting valve and the engine working com- 
pound at the time the exhaust comes from the low 
pressure cylinders. The steam that is exhausted from 
the high pressure cylinders is stored in the steam 
chest, and steam pipe connection, between the high 
and low pressure cylinders. 

80. Is it possible to cause the exhaust to go to the 
atmosphere, without entering the low pressure cylin- 
ders? 

Ans. Yes on some types of this locomotive there 
is what is known as a direct exhaust caused by reason 
of the fact that the engineer has control of the inter- 
cepting valve. When the engine is being worked 
simple, the steam from the high pressure cylinders, 
is exhausted directly to the atmosphere. 

81. By what means is the steam supplied to the 
high pressure engines, with the Malley Compound 
type of locomotive? 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 405 

Ans. The steam pipes that supply the high pres- 
sure cylinders are placed on the outside of the boiler. 
The throttle valve is situated in the steam dome and 
empties its steam into these pipes which lead to the 
steam chest of the high pressure cylinders. 

82. What provision is made for uneven move- 
ment in regards to all pipe connections, with this type 
of locomotive? 

Ans. When pipes extend from one set of cylin- 
ders to the other or from one end of the boiler to the 
other, they have what is known as a flexible joint. 
This joint consists of a form of the common ball joint. 

83. What are the advantages claimed for this 
type of locomotive? 

Ans. (1) It is claimed that about 50 per cent, 
more load can be hauled with this type of locomotive 
than can be hauled with a simple engine having the 
same weight on drivers, that is the same weight per 
axle. 

(2) It is also claimed that a saving of 33 1-3 per 
cent, is affected in fuel on the basis of ton miles, 
owing to the fact that 50 per cent, more load can be 
hauled than could be hauled in heavy grade work 
with a simple engine. 

(3) It is claimed that this increased load is 
hauled with the same effort on part of the crew, as 
would be the case with the simple engine, con- 
sequently an increased earning for the company. 

(4) It is claimed that the entire weight of the 
locomotive is utilized for tractive effort or purpose. 



406 POCKET EDITION OF 

(5) It is claimed that about 20 per cent, addi- 
tional power can be developed at will of the engineer, 
by working the engine simple (working live steam in 
all the cylinders) when occasion or conditions would 
require it. 

(6) It is claimed that the short rigid wheel base 
offers less resistance to the flange on the drivers and is 
therefore easier on the track. 

(7) It is claimed that the engine is less liable to 
slip than is the case with the simple engine, owing 
to the equal distribution of the weight on each driver, 
and the perfect balance of pressure in cylinders, when 
the engine is working hard. The accumulation of a 
high unbalanced pressure does not occur between the 
wheel and rail at the point of contact at the same time 
in both engines, consequently less liability to slip. In 
case the engine does slip, that is the high pressure 
engine should slip, it is not necessary to close the 
throttle in order to stop it as the greater pressure in 
the steam pipe and chest due to the exhaust from the 
high pressure causes the low pressure cylinders to 
gain in tractive power, and the high pressure engine 
then with a lessened load regains its grip on the rail 
and the train is kept in motion even though the engine 
should slip. 

(8) It is claimed that the running gear is much 
easier to make repairs on than is the case with the 
simple engine of the same or near the same weight. 

(9) It is claimed that in certain localities that 
the Malley is capable of doing the work of as many as 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 407 

three ordinary engines, hence the saving in connec- 
tion with the operation of this number of locomotives. 
(10) It is claimed that from the earning and 
economical standpoint, the Malley Compound is fast 
taking the place of all other heavy power used in 
freight service. 

84. When was this type of locomotive intro- 
duced into the United States? 

Ans. The first engine of this type was built in 
1904 for the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad ' and was 
placed on exhibition at the St. Louis Exposition. This 
tremendous piece of machinery was viewed with sus- 
picion by the leading Motive Power men of the 
country, but after being placed in service on the moun- 
tains in the east proved in every way a complete suc- 
cess. From this experiment the American locomotive 
builders have since turned out many different types 
of this great piece of machinery. 

85. Where was this engine first designed and 
placed in service? 

Ans. This engine was first designed in France, 
and placed in service in all parts of Europe, meeting 
with general favor in all sections of the country. 

86. What other type of freight locomotive is in 
general use in this country? 

Ans. The consolidation, or 28-0 type, the 
Mikado, or 2-8-2 type, the Decapod or 2-10-0 type, the 
ten wheel or 4-6-0 type, the Mogul, or 2-6-0 type, and 
others such as the Pacific, Prairie types of engine, 
the Consolidation type meeting with the greatest 



4t>8 TOCKET EDITION OF 

favor at present. These engines are generally de- 
signed to carry 200 pounds of steam, and have in 
many, cases superheaters, so that in most parts of the 
country they seem to answer the requirements of a 
heavy freight locomotive. 

87. As a rule how are these engines designed? 
Ans. They are designed with as much weight as 

possible on the drivers, so as to increase their tractive 
force, it being understood that the power of the cylin- 
ders of any locomotive must be offset with weight at 
the point at which the power is delivered. (The 
Wheel). The boilers of this class of engine are 
usually of the wagon top type, with large, or wide 
fire boxes. When the engine is of the simple type, 
the general practice is to design as large a cylinder as 
possible, with a longer stroke and smaller wheel than 
is used on engines with high steam pressure, super- 
heaters, or one in which the use of the steam is com- 
pounded. 

88. Is there any other advantage in the use of 
the consolidation type of engine over the larger and 
heavier class of freight locomotives? 

Ans. It has been proven that the consolidation 
type of freight engine can in cases of emergency be 
used in passenger service successfully, while with 
heavier engines this would be impossible. Often the 
demands of railroads require that a freight locomotive 
be used in passenger service temporarily, and the use 
of the consolidation type has greatly benefited this 
department of railroads. Then again in fast freight 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 409 

service the consolidation fills the wants for an engine 
that can successfully handle tonnage at a reasonable 
speed, where any other type of an engine could not be 
so operated. 

The heavy freight locomotive is only designed to 
haul tonnage, and of course could not be expected to 
make express train time with a freight train. The 
weight carried per axle causes the parts to run hot 
and even when this does not occur a general damage 
is felt to both the engine and the track, when this 
class of engine is operated at high rates of speed. 

89. What is the general type of valve gear, and 
what style of valve set do freight locomotives gener- 
ally have? 

Ans. The valve gear is usually of the outside 
connected style, and the valves are generally set with 
but little lead, and having considerable lap, with no 
inside clearance. 

90. What is meant by outside connected valve 
gear? 

Ans. Motion that is connected to the outside of 
the engine such as the Walschaert, or Baker, Pilliod, 
valve gear. 

91. What style of valve is generally used in 
heavy freight locomotives? 

Ans. Both the slide and piston valve are used 
extensively, while in some cases the Young Rotary 
Valve, Allfre Hubbel, and several other styles of 
valves are used, the slide valve being on some of the 



410 POCKET EDITION OF 

leading roads, considered the best, while on others the 
piston valve meets with general favor. 

92. What are the main advantages in connec- 
tion with outside valve gears? 

Ans. The main advantage lies in the fact that 
the motion is much lighter, easier to repair, less liable 
to cause trouble by running hot, and several other 
advantages, in points of construction, both to the 
valve gear parts, and the beneficial results obtained in 
connection with other points of construction of the 
locomotive. In regards to steam distribution there 
seems to be but little if any beneficial results obtained, 
as was first thought, by reason of controlled lead at 
all points of cut-off. The best authority on the sub- 
ject claims under certain conditions, and in some 
classes of service, the older style of motion gives more 
satisfactory results. The outside connected motion 
seems to have taken the place of all other styles of 
valve gears and probably will continue to be the lead- 
ing motion for all kinds of service for many years to 
come. 

93. What style of valve set gives the best 
results on a high speed passenger engine? 

Ans. Leading authorities claim that when an 
engine is on high speed passenger runs the valves set 
with a small amount of lead, and a little inside clear- 
ance give the best results. The manner in which 
this is done depends upon the style of valve and the 
controlling valve gear. With the Stephenson valve 
gear it is general practice to set the valves blind in 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 4 1 * 

full gear, sufficient lead being accomplished, or ob- 
tained, when the lever is well hooked up to give the 
desired results. This is brought about by reason of 
points in construction, which will be explained later. 
The Walschaert valve gear offers a more satisfactory 
method of setting the valves for all kinds of service 
by reason of its cross-head connection, known as the 
lap, and lead lever, or combination lever. Valves with 
this style of motion have the same lead at all points 
of cut-off, and this feature is what is known as 
positive lead, or lead control. 

94. What beneficial results are obtained by set- 
ting valves with lead, and of what use is lead control, 
01 positive lead? 

Ans. By giving an engine lead, or preadmission, 
as it is more commonly spoken of by motive power 
men, the engine is made smarter, the event in the 
stroke known as cut-off is caused to be earlier, and a 
better cushion for the piston in the cylinder is formed, 
thus helping the engine by its dead centers, and caus- 
ing the engine to ride better. Predetermined, and 
positive lead, gives more satisfactory results due to 
the fact that the lead does not become too great at 
short points of cut-off, as is the case on engines with 
the Stephenson motion, they having lead in full gear. 
When this style of motion is well hooked up or work- 
ing at a very short point of cut-off the lead often 
becomes too great for beneficial results in steam dis- 
tribution. 



412 POCKET EDITION OF 

95. Why are valves given inside clearance or 
exhaust clearance? 

Ans. Valves are given inside clearance in order 
to hasten the exhaust, thus decreasing back pressure 
and cushion. The engines that usually have this 
feature in valve construction are high speed passenger 
engines, with valves set with considerable lead, or 
preadmission. The steam is exhausted earlier in the 
stroke of the piston than it otherwise would be were it 
not for this feature. When an engine is running fast 
the steam enters the cylinder, strikes the piston and 
in reality there is but little expansion of steam, then 
in order to accommodate the movement of the piston 
it is necessary to rid the cylinder of the steam, so 
that the return stroke of the piston will in no way be 
interfered with. When the valves are constructed 
with exhaust clearance, the cushion for the piston 
while passing its dead centers is formed by the lead, 
or pre-admission of the valve, due to the valve gear, 
or with piston valves this event is sometimes brought 
about by decreasing lap, thus increasing lead. 

96. What is meant by exhaust lap? 

Ans. Exhaust lap is the amount the inside edges 
of the exhaust arch of the valve overlap the inside 
edges of the exhaust bridge when the valve is cen- 
trally on its seat. 

97. Why are valves given exhaust lap? 

Ans. Valves are given exhaust lap, in order to 
delay the exhaust, increasing compression or cushion, 
without giving the valve any more lead, or pre-admis- 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 413 

sion. Valves so constructed are generally used in 
connection with heavy freight engines, it being under- 
stood that in order to increase the pulling power of an 
engine the steam must be retained in the cylinder for 
a longer period of time than on an engine designed 
for speed. Inside lap does this without causing a 
drain on the boiler, to accomplish the same results. 

98. In the study of valves and valve gears what 
do we mean by valve, or by valve motion? 

Ans. Of all the various parts that comprise the 
locomotive, when properly assembled, the valve, and 
its controlling motion, offers the most interesting sub- 
ject for study. Upon the valve and its controlling- 
motion depends the ability of the engine to perform 
the work for which it was designed. Unless the 
events in the stroke, admission, cut-off, release, and 
compression, take place at the proper time to accom- 
modate the movement of the piston, the locomotive 
is an inperfect machine, and no satisfactory results 
can or will be obtained until such time as steam dis- 
tribution is in accord with the movement of the 
piston, in the cylinder. The function of the valve or 
valves is to control the admission to, or the exhaust 
from, the piston in the cylinder of an engine. The 
valve acts as a gate in the path of steam or the 
mechanical energy, by which the machine is being 
propelled, and upon its movement in one of two direc- 
tions, the energy used to propel is allowed to leave 
the boiler, or store house, and enter the cylinder of the 
engine. The valve in its movement admits, cut-off, 



414 POCKET EDITION OF 

releases, and produces compression of steam, or any 
other controlling energy, each and every time it 
moves the distance of its stroke. There are many 
kinds of valve, but the subject will be taken up later. 

99. What is meant by valve motion? 

Ans. By valve motion is meant the act of mov- 
ing, or causing to be moved, the valve, in connection 
with the parts of an engine, or locomotive. This 
motion is automatic, and purely mechanical, produc- 
ing the four events in the stroke of the piston. 

100. What produces this mechanical motion? 
Ans. Some form of eccentric, or crank, with its 

connected parts, which transmit motion to the valve, 
or valves. _ 

101. To what is the eccentric or crank fastened? 
Ans. The eccentric or crank is fastened to some 

one of the driving axles, or journals, which when they 
move due to the transmission of power in the cylin- 
ders of the engine (due to the main rod connection), 
cause the same motion to be transmitted to the valve. 
This connection can be made to any one of the driv- 
ing axles but is generally connected to the pair, on 
which the main rod is connected. This is done for 
various reasons that will be taken up elsewhere in 
this volume. 

102. What are the four events in the stroke? 
Ans. The four events in the stroke of the piston, 

are admission, cut-off, release, and compression. 

103. What is meant by admission? 

Ans. By admission is meant from the time the 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 415 

steam port is opened, until it is closed, during which 
time steam from the boiler is being supplied to the 
piston in the cylinder. As the names implies, admis- 
sion is the act of admitting, or causing to be admitted. 

104. What is meant by cut-off? 

Ans. By cut-off is meant the act of the valve in 
closing the admission port to the cylinder of the 
engine. When cut-off takes place the flow of steam 
to the cylinder is stopped. 

105. What is meant by release or exhaust? 
Ans. By release is meant the act of allowing the 

steam in the cylinder to escape to the atmosphere, 
it having performed its work in a greater or lesser 
degree. 

106. What is meant by compression? 

Ans. By compression is meant the act of squeez- 
ing- or trying to compress the steam trapped in the 
cylinder, due to the fact that the exhaust port closed 
before all steam was able to escape. This event in 
the stroke is known as compression, and forms the 
cushion that brings the reciprocating parts to rest, 
while they are passing their dead centers. 

107. What is meant by the stroke of the piston? 
Ans. The stroke of the piston is the movement 

of the piston from one end of the- cylinder to the 
opposite end. 

108. What is meant by valve travel? 

Ans. The valve travel is the distance the valve 
moves in either direction. The total valve travel is 
equal to twice the distance in inches to the throw of 



4l6 POCKET EDITION OF 

the eccentric. Thus if the eccentric has a five-inch 
throw, the total valve travel will be ten inches, five 
inches ahead, and five inches back. 

109. Are there any other movements of the 
valve, other than the travel derived from the eccentric? 

Ans. Yes, on certain kinds of valve motion, the 
valve derives a travel from a cross-head connection. 
This movement can under certain conditions be pro- 
duced without any travel, from the eccentric. Under 
these mentioned conditions the valve travel is equal 
to the lap and lead of the valve, producing or caus- 
ing a port opening equal to the lead of the valve. This 
is the condition when an engine is working at a short 
point of cut-off, with the outside connected motion. 

no. What is meant by overtravel? 

Ans. A v.alve is spoken of as having overtravel 
when it travels farther than is necessary to fully open 
the steam port, to admission. This overtravel may 
be so great that in some instances the exhaust port 
is opened to the stack, in which case there is a very 
hard blow. This overtravel is generally noticeable 
when the reverse lever is in full gear. 

in. What is meant by the lap of a valve? 

Ans. The lap of a valve is the amount the valve 
overlaps tke bridges, when the valve is centrally on its 
seat. There are two kinds of lap, steam, or outside 
lap, and exhaust, or inside lap. Steam lap produces 
an earlier cut-off, enables the engine to work steam 
economically, or expansively, and affords an easy 
means of giving an engine lead, by reducing lap. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 417 

Exhaust lap delays or causes the exhaust to take 
place later in the stroke than it otherwise would were 
it not for the lap. Exhaust lap increases compres- 
sion, and causes a greater cushion for the reciprocating 
parts to come to rest on while the piston is passing 
its dead center due to the connection of the rods. 

112. What is meant by the angle of advance, or 
when we speak of the eccentric leading or following 
the pin, what do we mean? 

Ans. By the angle of advance is meant the 
amount the eccentric is, or must be advanced to or 
from the pin, leading or following, in order to pro- 
duce the proper opening at the beginning of the 
stroke, or the position in which the eccentric must be 
placed in order to bring the valve to the center of its 
travel, when the main crank pin is on the dead center. 

113. Is it necessary in all kinds of valve set, to 
have this angle of advance? 

Ans. No, when the valve is constructed without 
lap, and set without lead, there would be no angle of 
advance as the eccentric in these cases is set at right 
angles to the crank pin when it is on its dead center. 
When so set, it is spoken of as being at right angles 
to the pin, or 90 degrees, of a circle. A circle is sup- 
posed to contain 360 degrees, a line drawn through 
the circle divides it into halves, or 180 degrees, a line 
drawn through in the opposite center again divides 
the circle into 180 degrees. The point at which these 
lines should cross is the true center, and any section 
of the circle so cut up by these lines represents one- 



41 8 POCKET EDITION OF 

fourth of the circle, and the angle assumed is a right 
angle to a perpendicular, hence the expression at right 
angles to the pin, or leading, or following the pin, 90 
degrees plus or minus, the angle of advance, which 
in reality is the amount of the lap and the lead. 

114. What is meant by the eccentricity of the 
eccentric? 

Ans. The amount of crank-like action the eccen- 
tric possesses is spoken of as the amount of eccen- 
tricity the eccentric has or possesses. This crank or 
throw-like action gives the valves their travel, or 
movement over their seats. The valves on certain 
styles of valve motion do not depend entirely on this 
crank-like action for their movement, but derive a cer- 
tain movement from a cross-head connection, known 
as the lap and lead lever, or combination lever. This 
feature is only found on the Walschaert valve gear. 

115. What are the functions of a valve? 

Ans. The valve (in connection with steam dis- 
tribution of a locomotive) performs five different 
things. (1) It admits, or allows steam from the boiler 
to enter the cylinder of an engine. The steam is 
admitted in but one end of the cylinder at a time, and 
the valve must accomplish this, or else the piston 
would be working against itself, and no work could 
be performed. (2) The valve must cover the opposite 
steam port so as to prevent this admission of steam 
to both ports at the same time. (3) The valve must 
allow the steam to escape from one end of the cylin- 
der before it is admitted to the other. This feature is 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 419 

called the release or exhaust. (4) The valve must 
not permit live steam from the boiler to enter the 
exhaust port, and escape to the atmosphere at the 
same time the steam is being allowed to escape. (5) 
The valve must close the exhaust port at the proper 
time, to retain a certain amount of steam in the cylin- 
der to produce sufficient cushion to bring the recipro- 
cating parts to rest. First we have admission, the act 
of admitting to the cylinder, then we have cut-off, or 
the act of stopping the flow of steam from the steam 
chest or boiler to the cylinder, then we obtain release 
or exhaust, in which event the steam in the cylinder 
is allowed to escape to the atmosphere, then we have 
compression, the steam in the cylinder, that is 
trapped, due to the fact that the valve closes the 
exhaust port, causes the remaining' steam to be com- 
pressed in a smaller space than it is wanting, to 
occupy, hence the term compression, which in reality 
is delayed exhaust, or possibly the same event in the 
stroke is brought about by pre-admission, or lead. 
Admission causes the piston in the cylinder to move. 
Cut-off closes the port, and the confined steam does 
its work according to its expansive qualities. Release, 
exhausts or releases the steam from the cylinder, thus 
permitting of a free return movement of the piston, 
when admission from the opposite end of the cylinder 
takes place. Compression forms the cushion neces- 
sary for th-e piston on any reciprocating engine, thus 
bringing the parts to rest on the centers and prevent- 
ing the disagreeable thud, or pound, as the connecting 



420 POCKET EDITION OF 

rods pass these points. It would be impossible to, 
operate any reciprocating engine without this event 
in the stroke known as compression, and upon this 
event in the stroke depends much of the successful 
performance of the ' engine. In valve setting this 
feature in the set is of vital importance, and no engine 
performs successfully unless the piston receives the 
proper amount of cushion. In order to understadn the 
effect of compression, one must go closely into the 
effect produced by giving valves lead, and exhaust 
lap. 

1 1 6. What effect on valve events does chang- 
ing the dimensions of the valve have? 

Ans. Decreasing the lap of a valve, increases the 
lead, makes admission earlier, and cut-off earlier. 
Increasing the lap of the valve, after the eccentrics 
are set, and no according change made in them, would 
have the effect of decreasing the lead, and make cut- 
off later. Advancing the eccentric likewise produces 
early admission and cut-off. If the eccentricity of the 
eccentric is increased the valves obtain a proportion- 
ate increase in travel. This may in some cases cause 
over travel. Giving the valve exhaust lap, or clear- 
ance, can only be accomplished by adding to, or taking 
from the exhaust edges of the valve, there being no 
manner by which 'these features can be obtained with 
the eccentric. 

117. What are balanced valves? 

Ans. Balanced valves are those from which 
steam at boiler pressure is excluded, in a certain ratio 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING \2l 

to the two surfaces exposed, the steam area, and the 
exhaust area. Time was when the top surface of a 
slide valve was exposed to the pressure of live steam 
from the boiler and figuring the area of the valve in 
square inches with so many pounds per square inch 
it can be seen the load the valve placed on the motion 
to move. As the locomotive increased in size, the 
valve became larger, and working pressure also 
became greater, until were it not for the fact that the 
valves are in a more or less degree balanced, the en- 
tire power of the engine would be absorbed, or used up 
in its own movement. Aside from the friction of the 
movement of the valve were it not so balanced, it would 
be impossible for the engineer to attempt to handle the 
reverse lever while working steam. So some form of 
free movement to the valve was devised. The subject 
of valve balance again brought out many different de- 
signs of valves, and balancing features, some of which 
failed in accomplishing the purpose for which they 
were intended, but offered the foundation for thought, 
until at present we have on all locomotives a form of 
valve most beneficial to the class of service the engine 
is in. 

118. What are the names of some of the different 
kinds of balanced valves? 

Ans. There are many, but the ones in most gen- 
eral use are : The American, the Allen, the Richardson, 
the Wilson, and several forms and kinds of piston and 
rotarv valves. 



422 POCKET EDITION OF 

1 19. What is the distinguishing feature in any 
of these so-called balanced valves? 

Ans. The distinguishing feature lies in the man- 
ner by which the steam is excluded from the top of the 
valve. The general custom to accomplish this is by 
using strips fitted in grooves, on the top of the valve, 
these strips working against a plate, either fastened to 
or cast on the underneath side of the steam chest 
cover. 

120. In what manner is the piston valve balanced 
to pressure? 

Ans. The piston valve being round, or spool 
shaped, operates in a bushing of equal diameter, and 
the pressure of steam is excluded from the outer sur- 
face of the valve by packing rings. These rings form 
both the admission and exhaust edges of the valve as 
well as upon the number, and size of these rings de- 
pends the perfect balanced feature of the valve. 

121. In general railroad practice how many rings 
are there on each end of the valve? 

Ans. There never is less than two (unless the 
valve be of the New American type), and in some cases 
three or more rings on each end of the valve. 

122. What is the New American piston valve? 
Ans. The American or semi-plug piston valve 

with but a single ring on either end of the valve. This 
ring is quite wide, and acts as both the admission and 
exhaust edges of the valve. 

123. Has this ring any other peculiarities? 
Ans. Yes, aside from being a wide ring it has a 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 4^3 

wedge-like piece underneath it in the groove in which 
it works. This wedge is set out or raised by the steam 
pressure, forcing the packing ring out against the 
walls of the cylinder, or bushing in which it works. 

124. How ib steam admitted to this wedge to ac- 
complish this action? 

Ans. On the inner side of the valve, or the ed^e 
from which the valve admits steam, there are several 
small holes drilled through the end of the spool, and 
admitting the steam underneath the wedge, producing 
the action just spoken of. 

125. What is the advantage in a valve so con- 
structed? 

Ans. The main advantage lies in the fact that 
the ring forming a more tight joint against the bush- 
ing in which the valve moves, causes the valve to be 
more steam tight, with less liability to blow. This 
valve is spoken of as a semi-plug valve, due to the fact 
that it is fitted with snap rings, which are expansible. 
When the throttle is closed these rings contract, or float 
in the bushing, but when the throttle is opened they 
adjust themselves to the walls of the bushing, and form 
a form of plug. This valve has many of the desirable 
features of the slide valve, yet retaining all the bene- 
ficial ones of the piston valve. 

126. What sort of a valve is the Young Rotary 
Valve? 

Ans. This valve is constructed much after the man- 
ner of the ordinary Corliss Engine valve. The valve 
is round, and has some of the features of the slide 



424 POCKET EDITION OF 

valve (namely, The Allen Ported Valve), in that it 
has a double admission port, or that the valve takes 
steam through a port in the valve at the same time 
that it is taking steam by the edge of the valve. This 
under certain conditions has a decided advantage. The 
balance feature in this style of valve is practically 
the same as in the piston valve, the ease with which 
the valve is moved in its bushing being practically the 
same. The greatest advantage of all lies in the fact 
that the valve is much more steam tight than a piston 
valve, hence there is less liability of a valve blow. 

127. What are some of the other advantages? 
Ans. The ease with which the valve is moved in 

its bushing shows but very little wea r on the machin- 
ery in parts. The eccentrics, with an engine equipped 
with this valve, after eighteen months' continuous 
service, show but very little wear. This is in itself a 
decided advantage. Aside from this, steam distribu- 
tion is more uniform, the port opening being largest at 
the beginning of the stroke, the point at which it is 
most desirable. The exhaust opening is said to be 
much larger, with all points of cut-off that it is possi- 
ble to obtain with other styles of valve. This has the 
advantage of causing but very little back pressure. 

128. Are there any other advantages in connec- 
tion with the use of this valve? 

Ans. Yes, there being two valves for each cylin- 
der, when a breakdown does happen, such as knocking 
out a front cylinder head, or one of the valves or valve 
gear parts giving out, the engine can be so blocked 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 425 

that it can complete the trip with an engine and one- 
half working steam. This will be further explained 
under the head of valve gear breakdowns. 

129. Aside from all these advantages, what other 
distinguishing features does this valve possess? 

Ans. The Young Valve, being on the form of a 
Corliss Valve, is much like the slide valve inasmuch, 
as it is considered more steam-tight than a piston 
valve, yet it is possible to move it with the same ease 
as the piston valve is moved. The fact that it operates 
in a bushing, with a rotary motion, makes it very easy 
to move, as well as the fact that there is but little or 
no trouble experienced from valve stem blows. This 
point in the construction of the Young Valve is a de- 
cided advantage, it not being necessary to use valve 
stem packing. The stem of the valve is in no way ex- 
posed to pressure, hence there is no necessity for pack- 
ing. 

130. Has this style of valve any by-pass valves 
used in connection with its bushing? 

Ans. No, as the functions of the valve set are so 
arranged, along with the construction of the valve, 
that compression is taken care of by the exhaust open- 
ing of the opposite valve. There being two valves to 
each cylinder, one only at a time is performing the 
events of the stroke, such as admission, cut-off, release 
and compression. When one end of the cylinder is 
taking steam, the valve on the opposite end is taking- 
care of the release, or exhaust. This makes it possible 
to obtain certain beneficial results not possible to ob- 



426 POCKET EDITION OE 

tain with other valves, namely, the manner in which 
steam can be worked expansively, without interfering 
with the actual construction of the valve. On other 
styles of valve in order to obtain certain beneficial re- 
sults during the exhaust opening, other functions of 
the valve are sometimes destroyed. 

131. What style of strip is used with this valve, 
in order to make it a perfectly balanced valve? 

Ans. The strip used in connection with this valve 
is much the same as is used with the slide valve. The 
admission edge of the valve is supplied with a much 
wider strip than the exhaust edge, hence the manner 
by which the lap of the valve is given. These strips 
are held to the valve proper by a groove and are raised 
to the inner surface of the bushing in which the valve 
operates by a spring. These springs are much the 
same as are used with the older form of slide valve. 
When the engine is working steam the action of the 
steam sets the strips out against the walls of the bush- 
ing, making a steam-tight joint. There is but little 
trouble experienced from these strips sticking, as was 
the case with the slide valve. 

132. Do these strips show any great amount of 
wear? 

Ans. No, the greatest advantage in connection 
with the use of this valve is the fact that there seldom 
appears on the work report anything in connection 
with the valve. These valves, after eighteen months' 
continuous service, show scarcely any wear. The 



Locomotive engineering 427 

bushing in which they operate shows well polished, but 
the strips show but little wear. 

133. What style of valve gear is used in connec- 
tion with the Young Valve? 

Ans. This valve has been successfully operated 
with both the Stephenson and a form of Walschaert 
Valve gear, invented by Air. Young and known as the 
Young Gear. The Young Gear is similar to the Wal- 
schaert, being an outside motion and possessing all of 
the functions of the Walschaert, namely, a predeter- 
mined and positive lead at all points of the stroke. This 
feature in a valve set is known as positive lead, and 
has the same beneficial results with the Young Valve 
that it has with other type of valve. 

134. How is this lead control at all points of cut- 
off accomplished? 

Ans. The lap and lead of the valve is controlled 
by what is known as the combination lever, or lap and 
lead lever. This lever has its connection to the cross- 
head, also to the radius bar. The angle assumed by the 
radius bar is the same regardless of the positi )n of the 
radius block in the link. (Or regardless of the point 
of cut-off, due to the position of the reverse lever in 
the quadrant.) The cross-head having at all t/mes the 
same travel, the combination lever acts as a fulcrum 
to the motion, as it were, and the valve is mo> ed a cer- 
tain distance at the beginning of the stroke (depend- 
ing upon the pre-determined amount of lap and lead) 
before there is any valve travel derived from the ec- 
centric. It can then be seen that the point of cut-off 



4^8 POCKET EDITION OE 

does not in any way effect the lap and lead, due to the 
fact that the combination lever at all times takes care 
of these functions of the valve. 
WALSCHAERT VALVE GEAR BREAKDOWNS. 

I 35- What are the names of the different parts 
of the Walschaert Valve Gear? 

Ans. The names of the different parts are : Ec- 
centric crank, eccentric rod; link, radius bar, radius 
block, valve stem cross-head, valve stem guide, vaive 
stem, combination lever, union link, cross-head arm, 
reach rod, reverse shaft and its arms, lifting arm, lift- 
ing link. 

136. How is the link supported with this motion? 
Ans. The link is supported in a bracket on what 

are known as trunion pins. 

137. How is the radius bar connected to the 
valve stem with this style of motion? 

Ans. This depends upon the style of valve. With 
an inside admission valve the radius bar is connected 
to the combination lever (which is in turn connected 
to the valve stem or its crosshead) above the valve 
stem crosshead. With an outside admission valve the 
radius bar is connected below the valve stem cross- 
head. 

138. How is the radius bar lifting link connected 
to the radius bar? 

Ans, On some motions it is connected ahead of 
the link, while on others it is connected to the radius 
bar behind the link. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 42y 

139. At what point in the link — top or bottom — ■ 
is the radius block placed for the forward motion? 

Ans. This depends upon the style of the motion, 
as well as the position of lifting link, either ahead or 
behind the link. On the American style of motion the 
block is carried in the bottom of the link for the for- 
ward motion, while on others it is carried in the top 
of thejink for the forward motion. 

140. In what manner is the reverse brought 
about — both the forward and backward motions — be- 
ing controlled by a single eccentric? 

Ans. The link being stationary has in it a curved 
slot. The position of the link, then, at all times de- 
pends upon the position of the pin or the wheel to 
which the pin is attached. The eccentric crank being 
connected to the link by the eccentric arm causes the 
link to assume a proper position in relation to the pin. 
The radius bar moves the valve so as to admit steam 
to the cylinder, in relation to the position of the pis- 
ton in the cylinder. Now, when it is desired to re- 
verse the motion of the engine, the reverse lever is 
moved in the desired direction corresponding* to the 
motion, and the radius block moves in the curved slot 
of the link, the radius rod then causes the valve to be 
moved so as to admit steam to the piston in the desired 
direction. This might be better understood by. sup- 
posing that the engine was standing on the forward 
dead center (right side), the reverse lever in full for- 
ward gear. In this position, with some styles of valve 
gear, the radius block is in the bottom of the link, and 



43° POCKET EDITION OF 

the radius bar has caused the valve to open the front 
admission port to the cylinder. The engine is the tak- 
ing stem on one side ahead of the piston (right side), 
and behind the piston on the other (left side). In this 
manner the engine is caused to move ahead. Now if 
with the engine standing in this position it was de- 
sired to back up, the reverse lever would of course be 
moved to the opposite corner of the quadrant, or in 
full back gear. This would cause the radius block to 
be moved to the top of the link, in which position the 
valve would not have moved from its original position, 
due to the radius of the link and the position of the en- 
gine on the right side. The front admissiorrport on the 
right side would still be open, and the right engine 
would be taking steam ahead of the piston. The left 
engine standing on the quarter would, after the re- 
verse lever had been moved, take steam ahead of the 
piston for a very short period, or just long enough to 
get the right engine off its dead center, when the right 
engine doing most of the work causes the engine 
to back up. The reverse is brought about with the 
Walschaert Valve Gear by the fact that the link is sta- 
tionary and has in it a curved slot, controlling the 
movement of the radius bar and block. 

141. How is a shorter point of cut-off obtained 
with this motion? 

Ans. The point of cut-off is effected or brought 
about with this motion in much the same manner that 
it is with other styles of valve gear, that embody the 
functions of the link. The closer to the center of the 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 431 

link the block is worked the shorter the point of cut- 
off. With the Walschaert Gear valve travel is derived 
from two sources, and as the block is caused to be 
moved to the center of the link to shorten the cut-off 
the movement of the valve then most all falls on the 
combination lever, with its cross-head connection. In 
fact, when the center of the radius block corresponds 
with the center of the link trunion pins, all valve 
movement comes from the combination lever. With 
the reverse lever in a position to bring about this re- 
sult the valve has a movement equal to the lap and 
lead of the valve, and the port opening is then equal 
to the lead of the valve. 

142. How is the lead controlled with this style 
of motion? 

Ans. The lead control with the Walschaert Valve 
Gear has been explained in connection with the Young 
Valve and Gear it being the same in connection with 
this motion. It is not considered necessary to repeat it. 

143. What style of motion is the Walschaert? 
Ans. The Walschaert is said to be both direct 

and indirect. When the radius block is carried in the 
bottom of the link for the forward motion and the en- 
gine is being operated in the forward motion the mo- 
tion is said to be direct, but when the radius block is 
working in the top of the link, and the engine is back- 
ing up the motion is said to be indirect. 

144. Are there any decided advantages, so far as 
breakdowns are concerned, with this motion over oth- 
ers? 



43 2 TOCKET EDITION OF 

Ans. Yes, as the motion being an outside motion, 
or outside of the frames of the engine, it is much easier 
to get at in case it becomes necessary to do any block- 
ing. Aside from this there are conditions where it is 
possible to obtain a valve travel after a breakdown that 
would not be possible with the other styles of valve 
gear. 

145. What can and should be done in case of a 
broken eccentric crank, eccentric rod, link foot, lost 
eccentric rod bolt, or a broken trunion pin? 

Ans. With any one of these breakdowns the en- 
gine can be run in on both sides, both main rods being 
left up and both cylinders working steam. There may 
be conditions under which there might not be any par- 
ticular results obtained from such a performance as 
trying to haul a heavy train, yet at the same time, 
when the engine is able to handle the train on one side, 
the following method should be used. For a broken 
eccentric crank, eccentric rod foot of the link, or a 
broken trunion pin, block the radius boring the center 
of the link. Place a block top and bottom on each 
side of the radius block, so that the center of the radius 
block corresponds to the center of the link trunion pin. 
Remove all broken parts and proceed. The valve on 
the defective side has a travel equal to the combined 
lap and lead of the valve, and the port opening on that 
side will be equal to the lead of the valve. The good 
engine should always be stopped on the quarter, as 
the defective side has no power to help itself off cen- 
ter, but only works steam at a very short point of cut- 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 433 

off. This method should be followed, as there will be 
a certain amount of power derived from the defective 
engine, as well as a much easier and more satisfactory 
method of lubricating the cylinder with the lubricator. 
The lifting link should be disconnected and tied up 
so as to allow the engineer full control of the good 
engine. When the train is well under way the good 
engine can be hooked up and the two engines' valve 
events will be the same, that is if the good engine be 
worked at its shortest point of cut-off. 

146. What can be done in case the good engine 
should stop on center? 

Ans. Shift the valve on the disabled side and 
move the good engine on the quarter, return the block- 
ing and proceed, exercising more care in stopping. 

147. What can be done in case of a broken lift- 
ing arm or lifting link, reach rod or tumbling shaft and 
its arm? 

Ans. Block in the link at the desired point of 
cut-off in the desired motion, being certain to block 
so as to be able to handle the train on all parts of the 
road. With any of these breakdowns, block both links 
top and bottom, and do not allow for the slip of the 
link block or radius block. 

148. In case is was necessary to reverse the mo- 
tion of the engine, how can it be done ? 

Ans. By changing the blocking in the link, put the 
short block in the top or bottom of the link, or vice 
versa, as the case may be, depending upon the position 



434 POCKET EDITION OF 

of the radius block as carried in the link for the for- 
ward motion. 

149. What can and should be done in case of a 
broken radius bar? 

Ans. Remove the broken parts, clamp the valve 
on the center of its seat, tie up the end of the broken 
radius bar from the combination lever and tie it up to 
main rod if not taken down, and proceed with the en- 
gine on one side. 

150. What can and should be done in case of a 
broken combination lever, union link, or a cross-head 
arm? 

Ans. Remove the broken parts, -disconnect the 
radius bar from the combination lever and tie it up to 
the running board. Clamp the valve on the center of 
its seat, take down the eccentric rod, make provision 
to oil the cylinder if main rod is left up, and proceed, 
with the engine on one side. 

151. How should the, engine be disconnected for 
a knocked-out cylinder head, broken piston, or other 
defects that render one side of the engine useless? 

Ans. The radius bar should be disconnected from 
the combination lever and tied up to the running board. 
The combination lever should be tied to the back cylin- 
der cock (if the main rod is taken down). The eccen- 
tric rod should be taken down, and the valve clamped 
on the center of its seat. The engine is then ready to 
proceed on one side. 

152. Why is it not necessary to disconnect the 
radius bar from the combination lever with the engine 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 435 

disconnected as for a broken eccentric crank, eccentric 
rod, link foot or link trunion pin? 

Ans. With any of these breakdowns it is possible 
to obtain a valve motion on the disabled side, hence the 
radius bar should not be disconnected. 

I 53- Why is it not necessary to disconnect the 
union link from the combination lever, in case of dis- 
connecting the engine as for a knocked-out cylinder 
head, etc.? 

Ans. When the engine is connected for any of 
these breakdowns, the radius bar is disconnected from 
the combination lever, and the motion of the cross-head 
only causes the combination lever to swing at its fixed 
point on the valve stem cross-head. The valve will not 
be moved, as there is no connection in the motion or 
movement of the combination lever. 

154. When disconnecting for any of these break- 
downs, why is it better practice to remove the eccen- 
tric rod than to take chances on leaving it up? 

Ans. With the eccentric rod removed there is no 
possible danger of the radius bar dropping down due 
to the fact that the cord or wire holding it up might 
become worn out, as might be the case if the eccentric 
rod be left. When it is taken down there is no motion 
on that side, consequently no danger of doing further 
damage. If the engine had but a very short distance 
to go, say anything under thirty miles, and the radius 
bar was tied up with wire, it then might not be neces- 
sary to take down the eccentric rod. This, of course, 



43° POCKET EDITION OF 

must in no way conflict with set rules of Motive Power 
men on the road by which you are employed. 

155. How would you oil the cylinder with the 
main rod left up, with the engine disconnected as for 
a broken eccentric crank, eccentric rod, etc.? 

Ans. With the cylinder lubricator. The blocking 
in cases of this kind allows that particular side of the 
engine to work steam, hence the lubricator can supply 
sufficient oil. 

156. How would you oil the cylinder in case the 
blocking could not be done as described in question 

145? 

Ans. If the rod be left up, the cylinder should be 
oiled as explained in the first part of this volume hy 
removing the indicator plugs or other ways as ex- 
plained. 

157. In case the union link should break on the 
American style of Walschaert motion (the combina- 
tion lever being pivoted to the valve stem cross-head), 
how could the engine be blocked so as to derive mo- 
tion on both sides? 

Ans. The engine should be placed on the quarter 
on the disabled side and the reverse lever hooked in 
the center of the quadrant, or the combination lever 
should stand straight up and down. A block of wood 
should then be fit in the stirrup under the valve stem 
cross-head, and securely held in this position by driv- 
ing nails through each end of the wood close to the 
valve stem cross-head. It should then be noticed that 
the main rod wrist pin is going to clear the combina- 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 437 

tion lever; if not, it should be bent out so that it will. 
The engine is ready to proceed, working steam on 
both sides, but it would not be advisable to work the 
engine at a short point of cut-off, as the functions of 
the lap and lead are destroyed by reason of the broken 
union link or cross-head arm, as the case may be. The 
disabled side must in this case derive all its valve travel 
from the eccentric, hence the reason for working a 
longer point of cut-off. 

158. What is meant by the term American Style, 
or American practice? 

Ans. By this is meant the manner in which Amer- 
ican motive power men have made certain changes in 
the Walschaert Motion. The motion being an old in- 
vention, yet not until late years tried out on the loco- 
motive of this country, suggested certain changes in 
its mechanical construction that have greatly improved 
it in parts, hence the expression American style or 
practice. 

159. What was the greatest change from the orig- 
inal style of Walschaert gear? 

Ans. The manner of connecting the radius bar to 
the valve stem cross-head is considered by some to be 
of the greatest importance, while by others the style 
of valve stem cross-head is more to be consideied. On 
certain styles of this motion the valve stem has a gib 
much after the manner of the main rod cross-head, while 
in others the valve stem cross-head is but a slip bear- 
ing. The main advantage in the first named over the 
other lies in the fact that there is a possible chance to 



43§ POCKET EDITION OF 

do certain blocking with the defects explained under 
question 157. While this is not considered much of an 
advantage, the writer thinks that this is the preferred 
style from this standpoint, and others, namely, in that 
particular point in discussion is very much strength- 
ened. 

160. What brought about the general use of this 
style of motion in this country? 

Ans: The fact that on the large power of today 
it was almost impossible to get eccentrics, as well as 
other valve gear parts, to run under the conditions 
which they were subjected to, caused the Motive 
Power men of this country to look for some other style 
of motion. So far as steam distribution is concerned, 
this motion also offered certain modifications that are 
considered beneficial. All the motion being outside 
the frame of the engine also has certain advantages 
not possessed by the Stephenson Motion. Troubles 
from hot eccentrics, with the outside motion are almost 
entirely eliminated. Engine failures due to broken 
straps are a thing of the past, as the Walschaert has 
no such thing to contend with. Running repairs are 
much cheaper; the life of the motion is much longer; 
the engine makes greater mileage between shoppings ; 
less trouble to the engineer to oil the various machin- 
ery parts ; a smaller amount of lubricating oil than was 
necessary with the older motion ; cheaper to install ; 
easier to run valves over in case they by some reason 
or other get out of square ; less liability of such a thing 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 439 

happening, and, in fact, many other decided advan- 
tages. 

161. How are the eccentric cranks set with this 
style of motion? 

Ans. They are always set at right angles to the 
pin (90 degrees), either leading or following the pin. 
This depends upon the style of motion and the kind 
of valve (inside or outside admission) used. 

162. How is the angularity of the main rod ac- 
commodated with this motion? 

Ans. The angularity of the rod is taken care of by 
the dip in the link, or the point at which the eccentric 
rod connects to the link has a decided backset. This 
acts to the Walschaert the same as the offset of the 
link saddle pin in the Stephenson, affecting an even 
valve travel in all positions of the pin in its revolutions 
with the wheel. 

163. Has the eccentric crank the same eccen- 
tricity as would be experienced with the same valve 
and the same valve set with the Stephenson motion? 

Ans. No, as all valve travel with the Walschaert 
is not derived from the eccentric, hence the eccentric 
does not need to possess the same eccentricity or throw. 

164. Is this any particular advantage? 

Ans. The writer does not think that such is of 
vital importance in valve motion study. The work per- 
formed by the eccentric is much less with this motion, 
yet in so far as moving the valve is concerned the ec- 
centric crank is much more durable than the eccentric 



44° POCKET EDITION OF 

strap, and would be capable of performing more work 
were it necessary. 

165. What part of the motion must then be sub- 
jected to the greatest strain when the engine is work- 
ing at a very short point of cut-off? 

Ans. The combination lever must be the point at 
which the greatest strain is exerted, as with the engine 
hooked at a short point of cut-off all valve travel is de- 
rived from the combination lever and its cross-head 
connection. 

166. With the Stephenson Gear working at a short 
point of cut-off, where is the greatest strain, so far as 
the motion is concerned? 

Ans. On the back-up eccentrics, for with this mo- 
tion at a short point of cut-off, all the strain of start- 
ing the valve falls upon the back-up eccentrics. 

This is considered the reason for the back-up ec- 
centric strap running hot or breaking on most engines 
running at a high rate of speed and a short point of 
cut-off. 

167. What point in the construction of the Wal- 
schaert Gear seems to be the one of greatest impor- 
tance in so far as steam distribution is concerned? 

Ans. The controlled lead feature at all points of 
cut-off. The lead remaining the same at all times, due 
to the cross-head connection of the lap and lead lever 
or combination lever 

168. What causes the lead to increase on the 
Stephenson Gear as the engine is hooked to a short 
point of cut-off? 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 44I 

Ans. When the reverse lever is hooked to a short 
point of cut-off with the Stephenson motion, the valve 
motion is thrown back upon the eccentric, which has 
the same effect on the valve travel as though the ec- 
centric was to be moved ahead through the motion in 
the manner in which lead may be given to this style 
of valve gear. 

169. How do the two styles of valve gear handle 
from an engineer's standpoint? 

Ans. The motion has but little to do with the 
handling of the engine. The Walchaert motion being 
the lighter should handle the easier, but the writer 
thinks the style of valve used has the greatest bearing 
on this question. Considering the valve to be the 
same, the amount of oil supplied the same, the Wal- 
schaert would in all probability handle easier, as in the 
Stephenson two eccentrics are to be contended with, 
as well as the fact that in this motion there is much 
more weight in more parts to be contended with. 
BAKER PILLIOD VALVE GEAR BREAK- 
DOWNS. 

170. What is the Baker Pilliod Valve Gear? 
Ans. This is a form of outside motion without a 

-link. The motion is said to possess all the features of 
other motions and one additional one not possessed by 
others, namely, the dwell in the stroke. This feature, 
by reason of certain points in the construction of the 
motion, causes the admission port to remain open for a 
much longer period of time than it otherwise would 
with other motions, hence the term dwell in the stroke. 



44 2 POCKET EDITION OF 

171. What are the names of the different parts of 
this motion? 

Ans. Eccentric arm, eccentric rod, eccentric 
crank, combination lever,, cross-head yoke, union link, 
lifter bar, valve rod, bell crank, reverse yoke, radius 
arm, frame inside and outside half (two pieces of each), 
reverse arm and reverse shaft. 

172. This being a linkless motion, what is the ad- 
vantage claimed? 

Ans. This motion having no link or block, has not 
the wedge-like action of the link block of other styles 
of motion. There are no loose slipping joints, nothing 
but pins, working in a bushing, making it very easy to 
repair in case of lost motion due to excessive wear. The 
cost of maintenance is very light with this motion, due 
to this fact. The pins and bushings can all be turned 
up in an ordinary turret lathe. 

173. What about the throw of the eccentric? 
Ans. The throw of the eccentric is only seven 

inches for a valve travel up to six inches. The speed 
of the engine or the manner in which the engine rides 
its springs does no£ effect the throw of the eccentric 
or the valve travel. 

174. What are the advantages claimed by the Bak- 
er Pilliod in valve movement? 

Ans. It is claimed for this motion that the-valve 
and the piston do not at all times move in relation one 
to the other. When the motion is in full gear the 
valve moves as fast as the piston. After the piston has 
moved 5 per cent, of its stroke, the valve seems to dwell 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 443 

or stand still, as it were, while the piston is moving 40 
per cent, of its stroke, or to the point at which release 
takes place. - 

"When the release takes place the motion causes 
the valve to be moved very rapidly, thus doing away 
with the excessive amount of compression. 

175. What are the advantages claimed so far as 
the lead of the valve is concerned? 

Ans. This motion maintains a constant lead at all 
points of cut-off. It is possible to run an engine 
equipped with this motion with but very little lead, as 
the motion causes a very quick movement of the valve, 
this taking place at a time that it is considered most 
advisable, when the piston is passing its dead centers. 
It is claimed with this motion that a valve set line will 
give 5-16 port opening at 25 per cent, cut-off. This, of 
course, would give a very late release, with but little 
compression. It is claimed that on an engine with 26- 
inch stroke, working in full gear, it is only necessary 
for the piston to travel 5 per cent, of its stroke to ob- 
tain full port opening. When the piston has traveled 
i l / 2 inches, the port opening is said to be 1 inch. This 
being the case, as much steam is being admitted as 
would be with other style of valve gear at one-fourth 
of the stroke. This feature in itself would be of great 
advantage in pulling heavy trains. 

176. What are the advantages claimed during the 
period of release? 

Ans. It is claimed that the release takes place 
much later in the stroke at all points of cut-off, hence 



444 POCKET EDITION OF 

a much higher rate of expansion. The steam being re- 
tained in the cylinder longer is made to perform more 
work, with less strain on the boiler to supply the 
cylinders, it being possible to get more work out of 
each admission. It is claimed by reason of the ex- 
haust taking place late that it is exhausted at a very 
low pressure, and this with the fact that the exhaust 
is very rapid and allows the engine to be run with a 
very large nozzle. This is in all cases a decided ad- 
vantage. 

177. Does the Baker Pilliod valve gear increase 
the pulling power of the engine? 

Ans. It is claimed that, due to the .act that the 
power is applied more evenly throughout the stroke, 
the engine is able to handle greater tonnage. 

The fact that the admission port is wider open at 
the beginning of the stroke greatly benefits the engine 
from this standpoint. 

178. How can the motion be blocked in case of a 
broken eccentric crank? 

Ans. In case the eccentric or eccentric rod should 
become broken, the engine can be blocked so as to com- 
plete the trip in the following manner: Remove the 
broken parts, being sure to replace the pin that con- 
nected the eccentric rod to the bell crank. Now block 
the radius yoke and reverse yoke together. 

This will give a valve travel on the disabled side 
equal to the lap and lead of the valve, 'and the port 
opening will be equal to the pre-determined amount of 
lead the engine is supposed to have. The engine on the 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 445 

disabled side will be able to perform as much work as 
though the reverse lever was hooked at a very short 
point of cut-off. 

179. What can be done in case of a broken com- 
bination lever? 

Ans. In case of a broken combination lever, re- 
move the broken parts, clamp the valve on the center 
of its seat and take down the eccentric rod. The en- 
gine is then ready to proceed on one side. With the 
combination lever connection to the cross-head (the 
cross-head yoke), the engine should be blocked in the 
same manner. 

180. What can and should be done in case the re- 
verse yoke, bell crank, valve stem, reversing arm or 
tumbling shaft arm is broken? 

Ans. On account of the construction of this mo- 
tion the writer thinks the only thing that could be done 
in any of these cases would be to disconnect the dis- 
abled engine and proceed on one side. The manner 
by which the valve travel is derived and controlled of- 
fers but little opportunity to do blocking in case of any 
of these defects. 

181. What breakdowns are most common to this 
style of motion? 

Ans. -The eccentric, eccentric rod, or combination 
lever are the most liable to become broken. This is 
due to the fact that the strain of moving the valve falls 
upon these parts. 



44-6 TOCKET EDITION OF 

YOUNG VALVE AND GEAR— BREAKDOWNS. 

182. What are the different names of the parts of 
the Young Valve Gear? 

Ans. The Young Valve. Gear parts are named very 
similar to the Walschaert Valve Gear parts, namely, 
the eccentric crank, eccentric rod, link, radius bar, com- 
bination lever, union link, cross-head arm, interme- 
diate radius arm, two rocker boxes, wrist plate and bell 
crank. The valve connection to the wrist plate is some- 
times called the union rods. Each side of the locomo- 
tive has two valves of a rotary construction, or on the 
principle of the Corliss engine valve. 

183. What can and should be done in case of a 
broken valve stem, or yoke inside of the steam chest? 

Ans. The fact that each side of the locomotive is 
supplied with two valves for each cylinder enables the 
engineer to quickly arrive at a conclusion as to what 
and where this breakage is located. If the valve stem 
broke inside the chest, and the valve was open to ad- 
mission the engine would stop, as that end of the 
cylinder would be constantly filled with steam. If the 
valve covered the admission port the engine would 
have but three exhausts. This would be easy to locate 
by watching the pin and noticing which end of the 
cylinder received no steam, hence no exhaust. After 
locating the side on which the defect is located the 
engine should be blocked in the following manner : Re- 
move the valve chamber head and block the valve so 
that the admission port is closed and the exhaust port 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 447 

open. Do the blocking by putting pieces of wood on 
either side of the valve, replace the head, and the engine 
is ready to proceed, working steam on both sides, in 
other words there will, after the blocking has been 
completed, be an engine and one-half working steam. 
This is, of course, an advantage not possessed on any 
other type of valve, or valve gear. 

184. What could be done in case one of the dowel 
pins that hold the union rods to the stem of the valve 
should become lost or broken? 

Ans. The pin could either be substituted or else 
disconnect, as explained in the preceding question. 

185. What can be done in case of a broken eccen- 
tric, or eccentric crank? 

Ans. Remove the broken parts, and disconnect 
the lifting arm from the radius bar, then block the 
radius bar in the center of the link. The engine is 
then ready to proced, working steam on both sides, 
but the valve travel on the disabled side will only be 
equal to the lap and lead of the valve, the port opening 
being equal to the lead. Care should be exercised to 
prevent the good engine stopping on center. 

186. How should the engine be disconnected for 
any of the following defects? 

Ans. For a broken radius rod, radius rod hanger, 
or lifting arm the engine should be blocked as follows : 
For the radius rod the entire motion of that side is 
destroyed, and the broken parts should be removed, 
the valves clamped on the center of their seats, pro- 
vision made to oil the cylinder in case the main rod 



44-8 POCKET EDITION OF 

is left up, and the engine is then ready to proceed. For 
a broken radius rod hanger, or lifting arm, block in 
the link at the desired point of cut-off, and proceed. 

187. What can be done in case of a broken reach 
rod or the tumbling shaft and its arms? 

Ans. Block in the link top and bottom on each 
side of the radius rod block at a point where the engine 
can handle the train all over the road. Guard against 
getting the block too close to the center of the link, 
as time can be saved by making certain that the engine 
is blocked at a point of cut-off consistent with the 
work the engine is required to do. 

188. What should be done in case it is necessary 
to reverse the motion of the engine, where blocking 
has been done as explained in the preceding question? 

Ans. The blocking can be changed in the link 
reversing the motion, or by so doing the motion can 
be changed from go-ahead to backup, or vice versa. 

189. How would you disconnect for a broken 
main rod or cross-head? 

Ans. For a broken main rod, disconnect the 
eccentric rod from the link, and the radius bar from 
its combination lever connection. Tie it up to the 
running board, block the cross-head back in the 
guides, disconnect the combination lever from the 
cross-head and clamp the valves on the center of 
their seats. The combination lever will be straight up 
and down when the valves are centrally on their seats. 
The engine is then ready to proceed working steam 
on one side. For a broken cross-head, remove all 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 449 

broken parts, and if necessary take the main rod down, 
block the remaining parts of the cross-head and dis- 
nect the valve gear as explained in the preceding ques- 
tion. 

190. How should the engine be disconnected for 
a broken main pin? 

Ans. The engine should be disconnected as ex- 
plained in the preceding question, with the exception 
that in this case all side rods on both sides will have 
to be taken down, the engine coming in with but one 
main rod up. 

191. How would you disconnect for a badly 
sprung piston? 

Ans. If sprung so bad that it was dangerous to 
run, it would hay*e to be taken out of the cylinder, 
knock out the cross-head key, and take off the front 
head, take the piston out and disconnect the valve 
motion as for an engine disconnected on one side. 

192. How would you disconnect for a knocked 
out cylinder head? 

Ans. If the head knocked out was the front head, 
or the back head was not too badly ruptured, that is if 
the head still supported the guides, the engine should 
be disconnected as follows : Knock out the pin holding 
the union arm to the valve stem, and arrange to block 
that particular valve on the center of its seat. Tie up 
the union rod, or remove it, so that it will not strike 
anything, and the engine is ready to proceed working 
steam on both sides, yet not working steam in the end 
of the cylinder with the broken or knocked out head. 



450 POCKET EDITION OF 

When speaking of the dowel pin in connection with 
the union rod, this connection is sometimes made on 
the order of a binding bolt, and a dowel pin. It of 
course will be understood that in some cases it would 
be necessary to loosen up on this bolt. 

193. In case of a broken combination lever, union 
link, or cross-head arm, how can the engine be discon- 
nected? 

Ans. If it is impossible to connect the radius bar 
directly to the valve stem, the engine would have to 
be disconnected as for one side, and so run in. In case 
this connection can be made, the valve will have a 
travel equal to the throw of the eccentric. The lap and 
lead feature, or lead control, would in this case be de- 
stroyed. When speaking of connecting the radius bar 
to the valve stem, it is meant that it be connected to 
the intermediate radius bar. It is thought by the 
writer that this cannot always be done, so the best way 
to do would be disconnect as for one side. 

194. How should this motion be disconnected so 
engine can be run in on one side? 

Ans. For any valve gear or other breakdown 
where it is necessary to disconnect so as to come in 
on one side, the engine should be disconnected as fol- 
lows : Remove the eccentric rod from its connections 
between the eccentric and the link, disconnect the 
radius bar from the combination lever and tie it up to 
the running board, clamp the valves on the center of 
the seat, and make provision to oil the cylinder if the 
main rod be left up. The engine is then ready to be 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 45 1 

run in on one side. When it is considered advisable 
the radius bar lifting arm may be disconnected so as 
to enable the other side of the engine easier to handle, 
but this is not necessary, as the radius bar on the dis- 
abled side will swing in the link, providing it is not tied 
too short to the running board. 

195. What is meant by the term link foot, or dip 
in the links, as used in connection with the Young and 
Walschaert Gears? 

Ans. This term applies to the curved extension 
on the link, the point to which the eccentric rod con- 
nects. 

196. Why is the link so designed and con- 
structed? 

Ans. This feature in the design and construction 
overcomes the angularity of the main rod and makes 
it possible to derive sufficient valve travel to obtain 
port openings while the engine is passing the dead 
centers. Or in other words to provide for even valve 
travel at all points during the revolution of the driving 
wheels. 

197. Aside from the angularity of the main rod, 
what else effects the travel of the valve? 

Ans. The vibration of the various parts caused a 
slipping action to the link block that effects valve 
travel to a certain degree, as well as the motion of the 
boiler on its springs. These things sometimes destroy 
the sensitive features of the valve set. The vibration 
spoken of usually takes place due to the fact that the 
valve gear parts are too light for the strain imposed 



45 2 POCKET EDITION OF 

upon them. The movement of the boiler on its springs 
does not affect the valve travel as much as vibration. 
The practice of properly oiling all parts of the valve 
gear is of great importance in so far as effecting even 
travel is concerned, it of course being understood that 
other parts of the machinery are in first class condi- 
tion. 

198. What part of the machinery of the engine 
has the greatest bearing on the exactness of valve 
travel? 

Ans. The condition of the driving box wedge has 
probably the greatest bearing on this question, as upon 
the wedge depends the proper line of travel in either 
direction. When the engine is turned out from the 
works the distance between wheel centers and a fixed 
point (the valve seat) is so calculated that the valve 
travels in proper relation to the piston, but as the 
wedge wears, and is allowed to remain lower than it 
should, the distance increases, while the valve travel 
decreases. Hence the effect of causing improper travel 
in relation to the piston. 

199. Is there any other thing in regards to the 
machinery that effects valve travel? 

Ans. The spring carriage of an engine has, to a 
certain extent, some bearing on the exactness of valve 
travel. If the pins in equalizers and hangers are not 
supplied with a sufficient amount of lubrication, the 
effect of the engine running over rough track is much 
the same as though the wedge was not properly ad- 



LoCdMOfiVE EN<SlNE£kiNd 453 

justed. The motion is in a certain sense thrown out 
by this condition. 

200. What is the greatest factor in maintaining 
the valve motion as was intended when the engine was 
designed? 

Ans. This question can be answered by saying 
that all parts of the machinery that effect the valve 
motion should be kept in a good condition. There 
should not be any great amount of lost motion, the 
wedges should be properly set up, the proper amount 
of lubrication should be supplied to all parts requiring 
the same, and little, if any, trouble will be experienced 
from a lame engine. 

201. What value are questions, with answers, to 
the man trying to qualify for an engineer? 

Ans. The majority of books covering the sub- 
ject, Questions and Answers, are of little value to the 
man seeking promotion, as they seem to contain little 
information that is of practical value to the individual. 
The greatest amount of value lies in the list of ques- 
tions and their relative value to the subject treated. 
When a man tries to qualify for promotion, he, of 
course, seeks all the information obtainable, and in so 
doing often buys a set of expensive books, as well as 
taking out a course in some correspondence school, all 
of which costs a greater or lesser amount of hard 
earned money. Most men that make a success of the 
business of railroading learn the business from the 
machine on which they are working, while the others, 
books, of one nature or another affords them their 



454 POCKET EDITION OF 

education. We, as the authors of this book, feel that 
the questions asked and answered in this volume will 
be of great value to any one, either the man seeking 
promotion, or the man qualified to run the locomotive, 
as they not only treat on examination questions, but 
give the engineer the latest and best ways to treat with 
any, and all breakdowns, that are liable to happen to 
the engine while in his care. It is to be hoped that no 
man will attempt to qualify as an engineer, on this or 
any other set of questions and answers, but it is rather 
hoped that the information contained in this set will 
give the student a clearer understanding of all sub- 
jects treated. It is not considered necessary to put 
expensive cuts in a book (thereby making it expensive 
to the man who buys) as the man who makes a suc- 
cess of running the engine learns the names and loca- 
tion of the parts from the machine. The questions and 
answers contained in this volume are the ones gen- 
erally used on all roads where the progressive exami- 
nation is in force, and if closely followed will greatly 
benefit the student in his effort to promote himself. 



FINIS. 

In conclusion of this volume, we hope to say that 
we have done as well as we could do, and not as well 
as could be done. 

THE AUTHORS, 

FISHER. WILLIAMS. 



INDEX 



A. 

Air Brake, parts of 51-52 

Air Brake, questions and answers 51-55 

Air Gauge Indications, black hand 182-183 

Applications necessary to make a stop 190-191 

Air, traced through system 160-164 

Air Signal System, operation and defects cf 221-223 

Air Gauge, importance of light on 229-230 

Air Gauge, how tested 230 

Air Brake Questions 232-368 

Air Brake, evolution of 237 

Air Pump, study of 241-247 

Air Signal system, E. T. equipment 339-340 

Air Pump, 9 1-2 inch 247-255 

Air Pump, 11 inch 256-257 

Air Pump, water jacketed 257-258 

Air Pump Defects 258-266 

Auxiliary Reservoir, time consumed in charging 180 

B. 

Baker Pilliod Valve Gear 441-446 

Boiler, abuse of 25 

Blower, use and abuse 25 

Boiler, leaky flues, care of . . . 26-27 

Boiler, form of 30-33 

Brake Valve, position of 52 

Brake Cylinder Pressure, where obtained 183 

Brake Cylinder Pressure, amount of 188 

Brake Cylinder Pressure, service application 188 

Brake Cylinder Pressure, how is greater amount 

obtained 188 

Brake Valve Drum, leaking 194-195 

Brakes Dragging, how released 197-19S 

Brakes, how tested 199-201 

Brake Pipe Exhaust, length of 210 

Blower, disconnected 106-107 

455 



456 INDEX 



Bearings, hot 110-116 

Brake Valve 277-281 

Brake Equipment E. T 290-367 

Brake Equipment E. T., necessity ol 290-292 

Brake Equipment E. T., operative features 292-298 

Brake Percentage 298 

B-6 Feed Valve 326-329 

Brake Pipe, defects 341-349 

Brake Valve, defects, automatic E. T 351-355 

Brake Valve, defects, independent 355-356 

Boiler Fittings 394-398 

Blow-Off Cock, construction and operation of 152-153 

Bell Ringer, principle of 156-157 

Bell Ringer, adjustment of 156-157 

Brake Valve, defects destroying excess 164 

Blows, triple valve exhaust 166-167 

Brake Pipe Pressure, amount of, how regulated 174 

Brake, definition of 232 

Brake Power 232 

Brake Questions 232-368 

Brake, Evolution of 237 

C. 

Goal 377-378 

Coal, composition of 22 

Coal, wet, when and why 24 

Chamber D Reductions 164-165 

Charging, without releasing 239 

Combustion ' 371-373 

Crude Oil 378-379 

Cylinder, how lubricated 105-106 

Crank-Pin 121-122 

Cross-Head, how blocked 124-125 

Check Valve, stuck up 137-139 

D. 

Draught Appliances 64-65 

Driver and Tender Brakes, condition of 215-216 

Driver and Tender Brakes, tests 216 

Drivers, sliding, how released 217-218 

Distributing Valve, tests 357-363 

Distributing, 2 ■ 309-321 



INDEX 



457 



Dead Engine Feature 337-339 

Driving Box, cellars, grease 109-110 

E. 

Engineer's Mechanical Examination 55-160 

Engineer, duties of 55-58 

Exhaust Steam, at what point 75-76 

Engine, towed dead 81-82 

Engine, lame, cause of 97-100 

Eccentric, throw of 101-102 

Engine Truck, broken 102-103 

Engine Truck, broken spring 104 

Eccentric, strap or blade broken 125-126 

Engine, inspection 140-142 

Engine, abuse of 146-149 

Excess Pressure, where carried and how regulated. . . 175-176 

Emergency, when used 185-186 

Engineer's Brake, in full release too long 195-197 

Emergency Application, advantage of 321-322 

Exhaust Nozzles 394 

Engine, definition of 398 

Engines, types of 407-409 

Events of the Stroke 414 

F. 

Fireman's Duties 19-20 

Fireman's Duties at Terminal 27 

Fire, condition of 23 

Fireman's Second Year's Examination 28-51 

Fire-box, construction of 31-32 

Flue, burst 79-80 

Front End Leaks 128-129 

Frame, broken 132-134 

Friction 142 

G. 

Grates, when shaken 24-25 

Guides and Cross-heads Not in Line 130-131 

Graduating Valve, duties of 184-185 

Grates, kinds of 393 



458 INDEX 



H. 

Handling of Trains 364-368 

Heat 370-371 

Hot Bearings 110-116 

Hand Brakes, when used 229 

High Speed Brake Equipment Necessary 223-225 

I. 

Injector — Principle of operation • 39-41 

Defects of 41-46 

Care of 46-47 

Injector Failures, cause of 150-151 

Injector, throttle, Check or Primer Leaking 151-152 

Injector Check-valve Stuck-up 137-139 

L. 

Lubricator, operation of 47-48 

Lubricator, sight feed 47-48 

Lubricator, defects of 48-51 

Locomotive Breakdowns 368 

Locomotive Boiler 379-393 

Locomotive, definition of 398-400 

Locomotives, classification of 401-402 

Leakage, grooves 185-186 

Lubricator Sight Feed, operation of 153-154 

Lifting Shaft, broken 122-124 

Link Block Pin 126-128 

Link Saddle Pin, broken 131-132 

Lifting Arm, broken 131-132 

Lubrication i 142-143 

M. 

Main Rod, bent or broken 121-122 

Mechanical 370-453 

Main Reservoir 266-271 

Mallet Compound '. 402-407 

Miles per Pint of Oil 158-159 

Miles per Ton of Coal 159-160 



IXDEX 



0. 



419 



Over Reduction 189-:. 90 

Operative Features of the E. T. Equipment 292-298 

Oil, crude 378-379 

Operation of Injector 39-41 

Operation of Lubricator 47-48 

P. 

Piston Travel, proper amount of 214-215 

Power, source of 21 

Pressures, where stored 52-53 

Pressures, beginning and ending 55 

Pump Governor, function of 55 

Priming and Foaming 65-68 

Plug, wash out, blow out 68-70 

Piston Valve 82-83 

Pressures, beginning and ending of 180-182 

Piston Travel, load and empties 209 

Packing Piston Rod, Cylinder 105 

Piston, bent or broken 121-122 

Pounds 139-140 

Piston Travel, effect of 209-210 

Pump Governor, defects of 167-171 

Pump or Governor Failures 171-172 

Pump, speed of 172-173 

Pump Governor 271-274 

Pump Governor, duplex 274-276 

Pump Governor, defects 276-277 

Pressures, brake pipe and auxiliary 220 

Q. 

Quick Action Cylinder Cap 323-326 

Quick Action Triple Valve 286-287 

R. 

Rod Brasses, keying up 74-75 

Reverse Lever, how motion is reversed 101 

Reverse Lever, broken 122-124 

Reach Rod, broken 122-124 

Rocker Arm, how disconnected 126-128 

Reverse Lever, caught 128 



460 mmx 

Releasing Brakes When on Freight Trains 191-192 

Releasing Brakes When on Passenger Trains 191-192 

Releasing Brakes, how 192-193 

Round House Tests of E. T 349-351 

Retaining Valve, use of, to what connected 220-221 



Steam 21-22 

Second Year's Mechanical Examination 28-51 

Sight Feed Lubricator 47-48 

Steam Worked Expansively 95 

Spring, engine truck broken 104 

Spring, tank truck broken 105 

Spring, driver broken 107-108 117-121 

Steam Chest Cracked 116-117 

Slide Valve, duties of 184-185 

Service Application, amount of reduction 186-187 

Steam Heat Reducing Valve, defective 154-155 

Steam, superheated 157-158 

Signal Line Pressure, amount of 363-364 

Steam Generating 373-374 

Steam, temperature of 374-375 

Steam, saturated 376 

Steam, superheated 376-378 

Stocks, kinds of 393-394 

Steam, power to work 398 

Safety Valves 322-323 

S. F. 4 Pump Governor 331-337 

Slippery Rail, how to handle brakes 218-220 

Straight Air Brake Equipment Necessary 225-226 

Straight Air Brake, purpose of 226 

Straight Air Brake Parts, duties of 226-228 

Straight Air Brake, method of handling 228-229 

T. 

Tank Sweating 20 

Triple Valve, function of 55 

Throttle, disconnected * 80-81 

Tires, broken 135-137 

Tank Valve, disconnected 151 

Throttle, leaky ! 108-109 

Train Handling. 364-368 



INDEX 



461 



Third Year Air Brake Questions 1G0-230 

Triple Valves, kinds of 176-178 

Triple Valve, duties of 184-185 

Triple Piston, duties of 1S4-185 

Testing Brakes 199-209 

Train Control Descending Grades 210.-211 

Triple Valves 281-286 

Triple Valves, quick action 286-287 

Triple Valves, disorders 290-297 

V. 

Value of Brake Pipe Exhaust 220 

Valve Motion 70 

Valve, piston 82-83 

Valve, bi-pass 83-85 

Valve, balanced 85-86 

Valve, defects of 86-95 

Valve, head and lap of 96 

Valves, triple kinds of 176-178 

Valve Gear, types of 409-411 

Valve Sets 411-414 

W. 

Water, how supplied to boiler 62-63 

Wedges 71-74 

Wheel, engine truck broken 102-103 

Wheel, Tank truck broken 103-104 

Wedge, how to report 129-130 

Wheel, engine or tank truck, how to report ISO 

Whistle or Safety Valve Blown Out 150 

Wrist-pin, Crank-pin, Driving Axle, power to move . . . 155-156 

Water in Brake System, damage of 173-174 

Wheels Sliding, cause of 218 

Walschaert Valve Gear 428-441 

Walschaert Valve Gear, construction and operation. . 428-432 

Walschaert Valve Gear, breakdowns 432-441 

Y. 

Young Valve and Gear 446-453 

Young Valve and Gear, construction and operation. . . 446-453 

Young Valve and Gear, breakdowns 446-453 



One copy de^ to pat^ Div. 



OCT 10 Mi 



